THE_AT CONTEMPORARY_JJ LANDSCAPE_NN1 British_JJ Society_NN1 and_CC Political_JJ Socialization_NN1 CONTINUITY_NN1 AND_CC CHANGE_NN1 are_VBR features_NN2 of_IO every_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ makes_VVZ each_DD1 significant_JJ is_VBZ the_AT nature_NN1 and_CC the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 change_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD systems_NN2 are_VBR characterized_VVN by_II rapid_JJ and_CC sometimes_RT revolutionary_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 are_VBR noted_VVN for_IF continuity_NN1 with_IW past_JJ experience_NN1 and_CC structures_NN2 ._. 
The_AT task_NN1 of_IO the_AT student_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO discern_VVI the_AT distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 continuity_NN1 and_CC change_NN1 ,_, to_TO generate_VVI concepts_NN2 ,_, and_CC ,_, if_CS possible_JJ ,_, to_TO construct_VVI models_NN2 and_CC theories_NN2 that_CST will_VM aid_VVI understanding_NN1 of_IO and_CC serve_VVI to_TO explain_VVI those_DD2 distinctive_JJ features_NN2 and_CC the_AT relationship_NN1 among_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
The_AT distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 can_VM be_VBI recognized_VVN by_II comparing_VVG that_DD1 system_NN1 with_IW another_DD1 or_CC ,_, better_RRR still_RR ,_, with_IW many_DA2 others_NN2 ._. 
In_II discussing_VVG the_AT merits_NN2 of_IO comparative_JJ politics_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 student_NN1 in_II a_AT1 class_NN1 of_IO mine_PPGE once_RR objected_VVN to_II the_AT whole_JJ exercise_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Every_AT1 country_NN1 is_VBZ unique_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" As_CSA others_NN2 in_II the_AT class_NN1 were_VBDR quick_JJ to_TO respond_VVI ,_, the_AT only_JJ way_NN1 by_II which_DDQ one_PN1 knows_VVZ that_CST a_AT1 country_NN1 is_VBZ unique_JJ is_VBZ by_II comparing_VVG it_PPH1 with_IW others_NN2 ._. 
Just_RR as_CSA one_PN1 can_VM know_VVI whether_CSW one_PN1 is_VBZ short_JJ or_CC tall_JJ only_RR by_II comparing_VVG oneself_PNX1 with_IW others_NN2 ,_, so_CS one_PN1 can_VM know_VVI whether_CSW one_PN1 's_GE own_DA political_JJ system_NN1 is_VBZ &quot;_" short_JJ &quot;_" or_CC &quot;_" tall_JJ &quot;_" only_RR by_II putting_VVG it_PPH1 alongside_II other_JJ systems_NN2 and_CC noting_VVG the_AT differences_NN2 ._. 
Space_NN1 and_CC resources_NN2 preclude_VV0 an_AT1 exhaustive_JJ or_CC even_RR an_AT1 extensive_JJ comparative_JJ study_NN1 in_II this_DD1 work_NN1 ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, I_PPIS1 propose_VV0 to_TO illustrate_VVI the_AT distinctive_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ polity_NN1 by_II comparing_VVG it_PPH1 ,_, where_CS appropriate_JJ ,_, with_IW the_AT American_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR similar_JJ in_II many_DA2 respects_NN2 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 shared_JJ language_NN1 ;_; advanced_JJ industrial_JJ economies_NN2 ;_; similar_JJ but_CCB not_XX always_RR identical_JJ political_JJ ,_, social_JJ ,_, and_CC economic_JJ values_NN2 ;_; and_CC some_DD mutual_JJ needs_NN2 ._. 
Each_DD1 has_VHZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO affinity_NN1 with_IW the_AT other_JJ ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, however_RR ,_, there_EX are_VBR significant_JJ dissimilarities_NN2 :_: dissimilarities_NN2 that_CST make_VV0 a_AT1 comparative_JJ exercise_NN1 useful_JJ ._. 
Such_DA an_AT1 exercise_NN1 will_VM serve_VVI not_XX only_RR to_TO sensitize_VVI the_AT American_JJ reader_NN1 to_II the_AT distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT British_JJ polity_NN1 but_CCB also_RR to_TO make_VVI readers_NN2 more_RGR aware_JJ of_IO the_AT features_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE own_DA polity_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 ,_, is_VBZ the_AT hope_NN1 ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO understand_VVI continuity_NN1 and_CC change_VVI within_II the_AT British_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, I_PPIS1 propose_VV0 to_TO stress_VVI the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 emphasis_NN1 will_VM form_VVI the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT next_MD chapter_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT book_NN1 's_GE conclusion_NN1 ._. 
Before_CS we_PPIS2 proceed_VV0 to_II an_AT1 analysis_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 culture_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 brief_JJ sketch_NN1 of_IO the_AT salient_JJ features_NN2 of_IO contemporary_JJ Britain_NP1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 outline_NN1 is_VBZ especially_RR pertinent_JJ for_IF comparative_JJ purposes_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR important_JJ dissimilarities_NN2 between_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC Britain_NP1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 geography_NN1 ,_, demography_NN1 ,_, and_CC social_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 small_JJ ,_, crowded_JJ island_NN1 ,_, largely_RR oriented_VVD in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 industry_NN1 and_CC population_NN1 to_II England_NP1 (_( and_CC especially_RR the_AT Southeast_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 )_) ,_, with_IW a_AT1 class-based_JJ society_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ superseded_VVN but_CCB by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 discarded_VVD the_AT characteristics_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 status-based_JJ feudal_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
The_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO highlight_VVI those_DD2 features_NN2 and_CC ,_, for_IF convenience_NN1 ,_, consider_VV0 also_RR the_AT media_NN of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 study_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 prerequisite_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 consideration_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC the_AT institutions_NN2 and_CC processes_NN2 that_CST culture_NN1 nurtures_NN2 ._. 
Looked_VVN at_II from_II the_AT perspective_NN1 of_IO land_NN1 distribution_NN1 and_CC usage_NN1 ,_, Great_NP1 Britain_NP1 could_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II a_AT1 predominantly_RR agricultural_JJ kingdom_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT three_MC countries_NN2 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, Scotland_NP1 ,_, and_CC Wales_NP1 ._. 
(_( The_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 comprises_VVZ these_DD2 three_MC countries_NN2 plus_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 :_: see_VV0 Map._NP1 1.1_MC ._. )_) 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT distribution_NN1 and_CC activities_NN2 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ predominantly_RR English_JJ ,_, nonagricultural_NN1 ,_, and_CC town-_JJ or_CC suburban-based_NN1 ._. 
CONTEMPORARY_JJ BRITAIN_NP1 Land_NP1 and_CC Population_NN1 Great_NP1 Britain_NP1 occupies_VVZ a_AT1 total_JJ area_NN1 of_IO 88,798_MC square_JJ miles_NNU2 ._. 
This_DD1 compares_VVZ with_IW an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO 3,615,123_MC square_JJ miles_NNU2 for_CS the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
(_( The_AT USSR_NP1 occupies_VVZ more_DAR than_CSN 8_MC million_NNO square_JJ miles_NNU2 ._. 
The_AT small_JJ principality_NN1 of_IO Monaco_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, comprises_VVZ but_CCB a_AT1 modest_JJ 368_MC acres_NNU2 ._. )_) 
Within_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, 10_MC states_VVZ each_DD1 have_VH0 a_AT1 greater_JJR land_NN1 area_NN1 than_CSN Britain_NP1 :_: Alaska_NP1 (_( 586,412_MC square_JJ miles_NNU2 )_) ,_, Texas_NP1 (_( 267,339_MC square_JJ miles_NNU2 )_) ,_, and_CC California_NP1 (_( 158,693_MC )_) being_VBG the_AT most_RGT notable_JJ ._. 
England_NP1 has_VHZ approximately_RR the_AT same_DA land_NN1 area_NN1 as_CSA New_NP1 York_NP1 State_NP1 ,_, Scotland_NP1 the_AT same_DA area_NN1 as_CSA South_NP1 Carolina_NP1 ,_, and_CC Wales_NP1 the_AT same_DA as_CSA Massachusetts_NP1 ._. 
The_AT disparity_NN1 in_II population_NN1 size_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX quite_RG so_RG extreme_JJ ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 population_NN1 was_VBDZ 56_MC million_NNO ,_, up_RP from_II 19.7_MC million_NNO at_II the_AT turn_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 population_NN1 in_II 1980_MC was_VBDZ 226_MC million_NNO ,_, up_RP from_II just_RR under_RG 76_MC million_NNO in_II 1900_MC (_( see_VV0 Table_NN1 1.1_MC )_) ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 more_RGR significant_JJ difference_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, in_II population_NN1 growth_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 population_NN1 increased_VVN by_II a_AT1 mere_JJ 0.5%_FO ,_, a_AT1 figure_NN1 matched_VVN only_RR by_II West_NP1 Germany_NP1 ._. 
The_AT increase_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO 10.4%_FO ._. 
In_II the_AT USSR_NP1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ 8.8%_FO in_II China_NP1 13.9%_FO ,_, and_CC in_II Brazil_NP1 ,_, nearly_RR 30%_NNU ._. 
When_CS the_AT population_NN1 is_VBZ put_VVN in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO land_NN1 size_NN1 ,_, Britain_NP1 emerges_VVZ clearly_RR as_II a_AT1 crowded_JJ island_NN1 ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO people_NN per_II square_JJ kilometer_NNU1 in_II 1980_MC was_VBDZ 229_MC ._. 
By_II European_JJ standards_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX exceptional_JJ :_: Belgium_NP1 ,_, the_AT Netherlands_NP1 ,_, and_CC West_NP1 Germany_NP1 are_VBR even_RR more_RGR densely_RR populated_VVN ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO people_NN per_II square_JJ kilometer_NNU1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 in_II 1980_MC was_VBDZ a_AT1 modest_JJ 24_MC ._. 
By_II worldwide_JJ standards_NN2 ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 low_JJ but_CCB not_XX exceptional_JJ density_NN1 ._. 
The_AT USSR_NP1 ,_, Brazil_NP1 ,_, New_NP1 Zealand_NP1 ,_, Australia_NP1 ,_, and_CC Canada_NP1 were_VBDR among_II the_AT nations_NN2 with_IW lower_JJR population_NN1 density_NN1 ._. 
In_II Australia_NP1 and_CC Canada_NP1 there_EX were_VBDR 2_MC people_NN per_II square_JJ kilometer_NNU1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ,_, the_AT population_NN1 is_VBZ heavily_RR concentrated_VVN in_II one_MC1 country_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, more_DAR than_CSN 46.5_MC million_NNO people_NN lived_VVD in_II England_NP1 ,_, compared_VVN with_IW a_RR21 little_RR22 over_II 5_MC million_NNO in_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, 3_MC million_NNO in_II Wales_NP1 and_CC 1.7_MC million_NNO in_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO people_NN per_II square_JJ kilometer_NNU1 in_II England_NP1 in_II 1980_MC was_VBDZ 356_MC the_AT highest_JJT population_NN1 density_NN1 of_IO European_JJ countries_NN2 and_CC greater_JJR even_RR than_CSN that_DD1 of_IO Japan_NP1 ._. 
Within_II England_NP1 ,_, the_AT greatest_JJT concentration_NN1 of_IO inhabitants_NN2 was_VBDZ in_II the_AT southeast_ND1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 (_( that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, Greater_NP1 London_NP1 and_CC the_AT surrounding_JJ counties_NN2 )_) ,_, with_IW a_AT1 population_NN1 of_IO nearly_RR 17_MC million_NNO ._. 
The_AT population_NN1 resides_VVZ predominantly_RR in_II areas_NN2 classed_VVN as_CSA urban_JJ for_IF local_JJ government_NN1 purposes_NN2 ._. 
Nearly_RR 80%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 in_II England_NP1 ,_, and_CC more_DAR than_CSN 70%_NNU in_II Scotland_NP1 and_CC Wales_NP1 ,_, live_VV0 in_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
The_AT shift_NN1 from_II rural_JJ to_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN marked_VVN in_II England_NP1 ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 living_VVG in_II nonurban_JJ areas_NN2 declining_VVG from_II a_RR21 little_RR22 over_II 35%_NNU in_II 1951_MC to_II not_XX much_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN 20%_NNU 20_MC years_NNT2 later_RRR ._. 
Although_CS more_DAR than_CSN three-quarters_MF of_IO the_AT land_NN1 surface_NN1 is_VBZ used_VVN for_IF agriculture_NN1 ,_, very_RG few_DA2 people_NN are_VBR employed_VVN in_II the_AT agricultural_JJ industry_NN1 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 persistent_JJ drift_NN1 from_II land_NN1 work_NN1 since_CS industrialization_NN1 in_II the_AT eighteenth_MD sand_NN1 nineteenth_MD centuries_NNT2 ,_, a_AT1 trend_NN1 that_CST continues_VVZ ._. 
More_DAR than_CSN 700,000_MC people_NN were_VBDR employed_VVN in_II agriculture_NN1 ,_, forestry_NN1 ,_, and_CC fishing_NN1 in_II 1961_MC ._. 
By_II 1979_MC ,_, the_AT figure_NN1 was_VBDZ down_RP to_II 367,000_MC ._. 
Increased_JJ efficiency_NN1 and_CC greater_JJR mechanization_NN1 have_VH0 in_RR21 part_RR22 facilitated_VVN this_DD1 development_NN1 ._. 
(_( Britain_NP1 has_VHZ one_MC1 of_IO the_AT heaviest_JJT tractor_NN1 densities_NN2 in_II the_AT world_NN1 )_) ._. 
There_EX are_VBR more_DAR than_CSN 250,000_MC &quot;_" statistically_RR significant_JJ farming_NN1 units_NN2 &quot;_" in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, with_IW three-fifths_MF of_IO the_AT full-time_JJ farms_NN2 being_VBG devoted_JJ mainly_RR to_II dairying_NN1 or_CC beef_NN1 cattle_NN2 and_CC sheep_NN ._. 
Farms_NN2 devoted_VVD to_II arable_JJ crops_NN2 are_VBR predominant_JJ in_II the_AT eastern_JJ part_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 ._. 
Sheep_NN and_CC cattle_NN2 rearing_VVG is_VBZ a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT hills_NN2 and_CC moorland_NN1 areas_NN2 of_IO Scotland_NP1 ,_, Wales_NP1 ,_, and_CC northern_JJ and_CC southwest_ND1 England_NP1 ._. 
Despite_II the_AT importance_NN1 and_CC extent_NN1 of_IO agriculture_NN1 ,_, nearly_RR half_DB of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE food_NN1 supply_NN1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI imported_VVN ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, Britain_NP1 is_VBZ heavily_RR dependent_JJ on_II imports_NN2 for_IF its_APPGE raw_JJ materials_NN2 ._. 
Compared_VVN with_IW other_JJ large_JJ industrialized_JJ (_( and_CC some_DD developing_JJ )_) nations_NN2 ,_, Britain_NP1 is_VBZ notably_RR lacking_VVG in_II natural_JJ resources_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ largely_RR self-sufficient_JJ in_II coal_NN1 ,_, chemicals_NN2 ,_, and_CC fish_NN ,_, and_CC the_AT recent_JJ discovery_NN1 and_CC exploitation_NN1 of_IO oil_NN1 in_II the_AT North_NP1 Sea_NNL1 has_VHZ made_VVN it_PPH1 a_AT1 net_JJ exporter_NN1 of_IO the_AT substance_NN1 ._. 
Other_II21 than_II22 that_DD1 ,_, though_CS ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ dependent_JJ on_II other_JJ nations_NN2 either_RR wholly_RR or_CC in_RR21 part_RR22 for_IF products_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 bauxite_NN1 ,_, copper_NN1 ,_, lead_VV0 ,_, tungsten_NN1 ,_, tin_NN1 ,_, nickel_NN1 ,_, phosphates_NN2 ,_, potash_VV0 ,_, rice_NN1 ,_, corn_NN1 ,_, cotton_NN1 ,_, silk_NN1 ,_, coffee_NN1 ,_, tobacco_NN1 ,_, and_CC forestry_NN1 products_NN2 ,_, among_II others_NN2 ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ self-sufficient_JJ in_II most_DAT of_IO these_DD2 products_NN2 ,_, with_IW surplus_JJ supply_NN1 in_II several_DA2 cases_NN2 ._. 
Only_RR in_II coffee_NN1 and_CC silk_NN1 is_VBZ it_PPH1 wholly_RR dependent_JJ on_II imports_NN2 ._. 
The_AT USSR_NP1 is_VBZ even_RR better_RRR served_VVN in_II its_APPGE natural_JJ supply_NN1 of_IO raw_JJ materials_NN2 ._. 
France_NP1 ,_, Germany_NP1 ,_, Canada_NP1 ,_, Japan_NP1 ,_, and_CC India_NP1 are_VBR also_RR more_RGR self-sufficient_JJ than_CSN Britain_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 lack_NN1 of_IO raw_JJ materials_NN2 not_XX only_RR is_VBZ important_JJ for_IF an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO British_JJ industry_NN1 but_CCB also_RR provides_VVZ a_AT1 partial_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF some_DD of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE internationalist_NN1 and_CC imperial_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ the_AT first_MD major_JJ nation_NN1 to_TO experience_VVI industrialization_NN1 ._. 
Most_DAT of_IO the_AT population_NN1 moved_VVN from_II the_AT land_NN1 to_TO find_VVI jobs_NN2 in_II manufacturing_NN1 industries_NN2 in_II the_AT towns_NN2 and_CC cities_NN2 ._. 
Most_DAT of_IO the_AT economically_RR active_JJ population_NN1 came_VVD to_TO be_VBI employed_VVN in_II primary_JJ industries_NN2 and_CC manufacturing_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 and_CC especially_RR in_II the_AT period_NN1 since_II 1945_MC ,_, more_RRR and_CC more_DAR workers_NN2 have_VH0 moved_VVN into_II service_NN1 industries_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ,_, Britain_NP1 can_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II having_VHG a_AT1 service_NN1 economy_NN1 ._. 
Of_IO the_AT people_NN in_II employment_NN1 in_II 1979_MC ,_, over_RG 13_MC million_NNO worked_VVD in_II service_NN1 industries_NN2 ,_, compared_VVN with_IW 7_MC million_NNO in_II manufacturing_NN1 ;_; 1_MC1 million_NNO in_II construction_NN1 ;_; 367,000_MC in_II agriculture_NN1 ,_, fisheries_NN2 ,_, and_CC forestry_NN1 ;_; 346,000_MC in_II mining_NN1 and_CC quarrying_VVG ;_; and_CC 346,000_MC in_II the_AT gas_NN1 ,_, electricity_NN1 ,_, and_CC water_NN1 industries_NN2 ._. 
Table_NN1 1.2_MC shows_VVZ the_AT changes_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 taken_VVN place_NN1 in_II the_AT period_NN1 since_II 1961_MC ._. 
Employment_NN1 In_II all_DB the_AT categories_NN2 other_II21 than_II22 the_AT service_NN1 industries_NN2 ,_, male_JJ employees_NN2 outnumber_VV0 females_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT service_NN1 industries_NN2 ,_, more_DAR than_CSN half_DB the_AT workers_NN2 are_VBR women_NN2 ._. 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 sector_NN1 ,_, 7.4_MC million_NNO workers_NN2 were_VBDR employed_VVN in_II the_AT public_JJ sector_NN1 in_II 1980_MC ,_, compared_VVN with_IW 17.3_MC million_NNO in_II the_AT private_JJ sector_NN1 ._. 
As_II21 to_II22 employment_NN1 ,_, the_AT service_NN1 industries_NN2 clearly_RR represent_VV0 the_AT growth_NN1 industries_NN2 ._. 
The_AT other_JJ main_JJ area_NN1 of_IO growth_NN1 is_VBZ in_II unemployment_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 and_CC early_JJ 1960s_MC2 ,_, very_RG few_DA2 workers_NN2 were_VBDR unemployed_JJ ._. 
In_II 1961_MC only_JJ 1.5%_FO of_IO the_AT workforce_NN1 was_VBDZ registered_VVN as_CSA unemployed_JJ ,_, but_CCB by_II 1971_MC it_PPH1 had_VHD risen_VVN to_II 3.5%_FO a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 792,000_MC people_NN ._. 
The_AT figure_NN1 increased_VVN throughout_II the_AT decade_NNT1 ,_, reaching_VVG 7.4%_FO in_II 1980_MC ._. 
The_AT following_JJ year_NNT1 ,_, the_AT figure_NN1 exceeded_VVD 10%_NNU and_CC in_II 1982_MC ,_, 12.3%_FO of_IO the_AT workforce_NN1 was_VBDZ unemployed_JJ over_RG 3_MC million_NNO individuals_NN2 in_II all_DB ._. 
Critics_NN2 of_IO official_JJ statistics_NN argued_VVD that_CST not_XX all_DB those_DD2 out_II21 of_II22 work_NN1 were_VBDR registered_VVN as_CSA unemployed_JJ and_CC that_CST the_AT real_JJ figure_NN1 was_VBDZ therefore_RR higher_JJR than_CSN that_DD1 given_VVN by_II the_AT Department_NN1 of_IO Employment_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ responsible_JJ for_IF compiling_VVG the_AT data_NN ._. 
Within_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 is_VBZ greater_JJR the_AT further_JJR one_PN1 moves_VVZ from_II London_NP1 and_CC the_AT Southeast_ND1 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, the_AT percentage_NN1 of_IO the_AT workforce_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 work_NN1 in_II the_AT Southeast_ND1 was_VBDZ 4.8%_FO ._. 
In_II the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ 10.9%_FO ,_, in_II Wales_NP1 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ 10.3%_FO ,_, in_II Scotland_NP1 10.0%_FO ,_, and_CC in_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ,_, traditionally_RR the_AT place_NN1 with_IW the_AT highest_JJT level_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ,_, nearly_RR 14%_NNU ._. 
Within_II the_AT workforce_NN1 ,_, unemployment_NN1 was_VBDZ greater_JJR among_II immigrants_NN2 from_II the_AT New_JJ Commonwealth_NN1 and_CC Pakistan_NP1 than_CSN it_PPH1 was_VBDZ among_II native-born_JJ citizens_NN2 or_CC those_DD2 from_II other_JJ European_JJ countries_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR most_RRT marked_VVN among_II the_AT younger_JJR age_NN1 groups_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 aged_VVN under_RG 24_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ also_RR a_AT1 marked_JJ increase_NN1 during_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO long-term_JJ unemployed_JJ ._. 
In_II April_NPM1 1972_MC ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 unemployed_JJ for_IF more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 year_NNT1 accounted_VVN for_IF one-sixth_MF of_IO the_AT total_JJ unemployed_JJ ;_; by_II April_NPM1 1981_MC ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 had_VHD risen_VVN to_II one-fifth_MF ._. 
The_AT level_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ high_JJ in_II both_DB2 absolute_JJ and_CC comparative_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1982_MC ,_, the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 had_VHD the_AT highest_JJT level_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 among_II the_AT seven_MC major_JJ countries_NN2 in_II the_AT Organization_NN1 for_IF Economic_JJ Cooperation_NN1 and_CC Development_NN1 (_( OECD_NP1 )_) ._. 
Britain_NP1 's_GE unemployment_NN1 rate_NN1 of_IO 12.3%_FO compared_VVN with_IW 11%_NNU for_IF Canada_NP1 ,_, 9.5%_FO for_IF the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, 9.3%_FO for_IF Italy_NP1 ,_, 8.5%_FO for_IF France_NP1 ,_, 7%_NNU for_IF Germany_NP1 ,_, and_CC 2.3%_FO for_IF Japan_NP1 ._. 
The_AT average_NN1 among_II other_JJ OECD_NP1 countries_NN2 was_VBDZ 10%_NNU ._. 
In_II 1983_MC ,_, the_AT governing_JJ Conservative_JJ Party_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ keen_JJ to_TO point_VVI out_RP that_CST the_AT rate_NN1 of_IO increase_NN1 in_II unemployment_NN1 from_II 1982_MC to_II 1983_MC was_VBDZ higher_JJR in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, Germany_NP1 ,_, the_AT Netherlands_NP1 ,_, and_CC Canada_NP1 than_CSN it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 (_( a_AT1 23.1%_FO increase_VV0 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 compared_VVD with_IW 11.8%_FO in_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 )_) and_CC that_DD1 unemployment_NN1 would_VM be_VBI higher_JJR in_II other_JJ countries_NN2 were_VBDR it_PPH1 not_XX in_II some_DD cases_NN2 for_IF conscription_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 retirement_NN1 age_NN1 for_IF men_NN2 of_IO 60_MC ._. 
Britain_NP1 does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI conscription_NN1 (_( compulsory_JJ national_JJ service_NN1 in_II the_AT armed_JJ services_NN2 was_VBDZ ended_VVN in_II 1961_MC )_) ,_, and_CC the_AT retirement_NN1 age_NN1 for_IF men_NN2 is_VBZ 65_MC ._. 
The_AT population_NN1 is_VBZ predominantly_RR English_JJ in_II birth_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 residence_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ concomitantly_RR white_JJ and_CC English-speaking_JJ ._. 
However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX totally_RR homogeneous_JJ ._. 
Not_XX only_RR is_VBZ there_EX a_AT1 division_NN1 among_II the_AT English_NN1 ,_, the_AT Scottish_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT Welsh_JJ ;_; there_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 division_NN1 between_II Gaelic-speaking_JJ Scots_NN2 and_CC those_DD2 who_PNQS do_VD0 not_XX speak_VVI Gaelic_JJ ,_, and_CC between_II those_DD2 who_PNQS do_VD0 and_CC do_VD0 not_XX speak_VVI the_AT Welsh_JJ language_NN1 in_II Wales_NP1 ._. 
In_II both_DB2 cases_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 who_PNQS speak_VV0 the_AT old_JJ traditional_JJ language_NN1 are_VBR in_II a_AT1 small_JJ minority_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1971_MC ,_, only_RR 19.8%_FO of_IO the_AT inhabitants_NN2 of_IO Wales_NP1 could_VM speak_VVI the_AT Welsh_JJ language_NN1 (_( down_RP from_II 27.5%_FO in_II 1951_MC )_) and_CC only_RR 1.7%_FO of_IO Scots_NN2 could_VM speak_VVI Gaelic_JJ ,_, most_DAT of_IO the_AT Gaelic_JJ speakers_NN2 being_VBG concentrated_VVN in_II the_AT Scottish_JJ highlands_NN2 and_CC islands_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 further_JJR division_NN1 when_CS one_PN1 includes_VVZ Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ,_, where_CS the_AT community_NN1 is_VBZ divided_VVN along_RP mutually_RR exclusive_JJ lines_NN2 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 9_MC )_) :_: a_AT1 few_DA2 families_NN2 in_II the_AT province_NN1 still_RR speak_VV0 the_AT Irish_JJ form_NN1 of_IO Gaelic_JJ ._. 
The_AT influx_NN1 of_IO immigrants_NN2 into_II Britain_NP1 ,_, especially_RR in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 and_CC early_JJ 1960s_MC2 ,_, has_VHZ also_RR added_VVN to_II the_AT diversity_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 and_CC to_II linguistic_JJ differences_NN2 ._. 
Linguistic_JJ and_CC Racial_JJ Differences_NN2 The_AT number_NN1 of_IO people_NN in_II Britain_NP1 who_PNQS are_VBR from_II ,_, or_CC whose_DDQGE parents_NN2 are_VBR from_II ,_, the_AT New_JJ Commonwealth_NN1 countries_NN2 and_CC Pakistan_NP1 a_AT1 category_NN1 close_RR to_II but_CCB not_XX quite_RG identical_JJ to_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT black_JJ population_NN1 is_VBZ just_RR over_RG 2_MC million_NNO ,_, just_RR under_RG 4%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 has_VHZ increased_VVN gradually_RR from_II 1,087,000_MC in_II 1968_MC ,_, though_CS natural_JJ increase_NN1 (_( excess_NN1 of_IO births_NN2 over_II death_NN1 )_) accounted_VVD for_IF more_DAR than_CSN half_DB the_AT rise_NN1 in_II 1979-1980_MCMC ,_, the_AT last_MD year_NNT1 for_IF which_DDQ figures_NN2 are_VBR available_JJ ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 of_IO racial_JJ tension_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN exacerbated_VVN by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST ,_, though_CS the_AT total_JJ black_JJ population_NN1 is_VBZ small_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ largely_RR concentrated_VVN in_II certain_JJ urban_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, notably_RR London_NP1 ,_, Leicester_NP1 ,_, Birmingham_NP1 ,_, and_CC various_JJ West_NP1 Midlands_NP2 towns_NN2 ._. 
By_II contrast_NN1 ,_, the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 has_VHZ experienced_VVN analogous_JJ problems_NN2 of_IO concentration_NN1 but_CCB has_VHZ a_AT1 much_RR larger_JJR black_JJ population_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1970_MC ,_, blacks_NN2 accounted_VVN for_IF well_RR in_II31 excess_II32 of_II33 10%_NNU of_IO the_AT American_JJ population_NN1 (_( 22.5_MC million_NNO out_II21 of_II22 203_MC million_NNO )_) ;_; other_JJ nonwhite_NN1 races_NN2 accounted_VVN for_IF nearly_RR a_AT1 further_JJR 3_MC million_NNO citizens_NN2 ._. 
Unlike_II Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT black_JJ population_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 is_VBZ as_RG indigenous_JJ as_CSA the_AT white_JJ ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 also_RR has_VHZ a_AT1 far_RG greater_JJR ethnic_JJ mix_NN1 than_CSN Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT hyphen_NN1 in_II American_JJ society_NN1 (_( German-Americans_NN2 ,_, Polish-Americans_NN2 )_) has_VHZ no_AT significant_JJ equivalent_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI a_AT1 feudal_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
The_AT significance_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 fact_NN1 was_VBDZ well_RR drawn_VVN out_RP by_II Louis_NP1 Hartz_NP1 in_II his_APPGE incisive_JJ work_NN1 on_II the_AT Lockean_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO American_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, most_RGT certainly_RR does_VDZ have_VHI a_AT1 feudal_JJ past_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, unlike_II some_DD of_IO its_APPGE European_JJ neighbors_NN2 with_IW feudal_JJ histories_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ witnessed_VVN no_AT revolutionary_JJ break_NN1 with_IW past_JJ experience_NN1 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, the_AT class_NN1 patterns_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 capitalist_JJ society_NN1 have_VH0 been_VBN superimposed_VVN on_II the_AT hierarchical_JJ social_JJ structure_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 departing_JJ feudal_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
Class_NN1 Status_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II the_AT tendency_NN1 of_IO people_NN to_TO accord_VVI positive_JJ and_CC negative_JJ values_NN2 to_II human_JJ attributes_NN2 and_CC to_TO distribute_VVI respect_NN1 accordingly_RR ._. 
In_II feudal_JJ society_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 superior_JJ status_NN1 was_VBDZ accorded_VVN to_II the_AT land-owning_JJ aristocracy_NN1 and_CC gentry_NN ._. 
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR deemed_VVN to_TO have_VHI breeding_NN1 and_CC to_TO be_VBI the_AT best_JJT people_NN to_TO run_VVI the_AT land_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR accorded_VVN deference_NN1 as_II a_AT1 socially_RR superior_JJ body_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 status_NN1 that_CST was_VBDZ passed_VVN on_RP by_II inheritance_NN1 ,_, not_XX one_PN1 that_CST could_VM be_VBI acquired_VVN by_II merit_NN1 or_CC work_NN1 ._. 
Whereas_CS status_NN1 is_VBZ essentially_RR the_AT product_NN1 of_IO social_JJ structure_NN1 ,_, class_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT product_NN1 of_IO the_AT economic_JJ ._. 
Defining_VVG the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX an_AT1 easy_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
Marx_NP1 distinguished_VVD two_MC classes_NN2 ,_, bourgeois_JJ and_CC proletarian_JJ ,_, based_VVN on_II the_AT ownership_NN1 of_IO the_AT means_NN of_IO production_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 particularly_RR useful_JJ definition_NN1 given_VVN the_AT significant_JJ distinction_NN1 between_II ownership_NN1 and_CC control_NN1 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ compounded_VVN by_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST the_AT term_NN1 means_VVZ different_JJ things_NN2 to_II different_JJ people_NN ._. 
How_RGQ social_JJ scientists_NN2 define_VV0 class_NN1 and_CC how_RRQ others_NN2 perceive_VV0 it_PPH1 (_( not_XX least_RRT in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 self-ascription_NN1 )_) are_VBR often_RR far_RG21 from_RG22 congruent_JJ ._. 
The_AT most_RGT useful_JJ definition_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO groups_NN2 formed_VVN on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO occupational_JJ difference_NN1 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR essentially_RR two_MC classes_NN2 ,_, the_AT middle_NN1 and_CC the_AT working_JJ (_( a_AT1 characteristically_RR British_JJ distinction_NN1 ,_, as_CSA A._NP1 H._NP1 Halsey_NP1 has_VHZ observed_VVN )_) ._. 
Within_II each_DD1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR further_JJR divisions_NN2 ._. 
Table_NN1 1.3_MC provides_VVZ a_AT1 simple_JJ delineation_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
Class_NN1 grew_VVD out_II21 of_II22 industrialization_NN1 and_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 capitalist_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX displace_VVI status_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 usurped_VVD it_PPH1 ._. 
In_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT upper_JJ class_NN1 comprised_VVD the_AT traditional_JJ landed_JJ aristocracy_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 aristocracy_NN1 that_CST had_VHD absorbed_VVN largely_RR if_CS not_XX wholly_RR the_AT new_JJ men_NN2 of_IO wealth_NN1 who_PNQS had_VHD made_VVN their_APPGE money_NN1 out_II21 of_II22 trade_NN1 and_CC industry_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 new_JJ men_NN2 were_VBDR drawn_VVN into_II the_AT new_JJ class_NN1 until_CS eventually_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 overwhelmed_VVD it_PPH1 ._. 
This_DD1 combination_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 and_CC status_NN1 was_VBDZ carried_VVN into_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
In_II recent_JJ decades_NNT2 ,_, however_RR ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN weakened_VVN ._. 
Some_DD of_IO the_AT features_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 status_NN1 society_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 peerages_NN2 ,_, can_VM be_VBI passed_VVN from_II father_NN1 to_II son_NN1 :_: the_AT inheritance_NN1 is_VBZ founded_VVN in_II law_NN1 ._. 
Class_NN1 can_VM be_VBI inherited_VVN but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 inheritance_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT market_NN1 ._. 
The_AT market_NN1 is_VBZ less_RGR predictable_JJ than_CSN the_AT law_NN1 ._. 
Recent_JJ years_NNT2 have_VH0 witnessed_VVN a_AT1 growing_JJ social_JJ mobility_NN1 ._. 
The_AT children_NN2 of_IO many_DA2 working-class_JJ parents_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN upwardly_RR mobile_JJ socially_RR ._. 
The_AT children_NN2 of_IO some_DD middle-class_JJ parents_NN2 have_VH0 taken_VVN up_RP working-class_JJ occupations_NN2 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, a_AT1 few_DA2 members_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 institutional_JJ survivor_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 feudal_JJ era_NN1 ,_, the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP ,_, pursue_VV0 manual_JJ occupations_NN2 ._. 
Writes_VVZ Halsey_NP1 ,_, &quot;_" Men_NN2 and_CC women_NN2 ,_, moving_VVG and_CC marrying_VVG between_II different_JJ occupational_JJ levels_NN2 ,_, both_RR over_II the_AT generations_NN2 and_CC also_RR within_II their_APPGE own_DA working_JJ lives_NN2 or_CC careers_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 become_VVN an_AT1 increasingly_RR common_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO British_JJ social_JJ life_NN1 in_II the_AT past_NN1 half_DB century_NNT1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT general_JJ pattern_NN1 of_IO change_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN one_MC1 of_IO upward_JJ mobility_NN1 ._. 
Greater_JJR mobility_NN1 and_CC affluence_NN1 have_VH0 eroded_VVN the_AT claims_NN2 to_II status_NN1 ._. 
Mobility_NN1 deprives_VVZ one_MC1 of_IO claims_NN2 to_II breeding_NN1 ._. 
Acceptance_NN1 of_IO the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO meritoracy_NN1 is_VBZ discordant_JJ with_IW claims_NN2 of_IO inherited_JJ worth_NN1 ._. 
Status_NN1 remains_VVZ important_JJ but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ no_RR21 longer_RR22 the_AT central_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO British_JJ society_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II preceding_JJ centuries_NNT2 ._. 
The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 in_II contemporary_JJ society_NN1 was_VBDZ confirmed_VVN by_II Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 in_II their_APPGE study_NN1 of_IO political_JJ change_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 1970_MC survey_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 asked_VVD respondents_NN2 to_TO name_VVI the_AT main_JJ social_JJ classes_NN2 and_CC the_AT class_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 would_VM ascribe_VVI themselves_PPX2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 found_VVD that_CST &quot;_" virtually_RR every-one_PN1 accepted_VVD the_AT conventional_JJ class_NN1 dichotomy_NN1 between_II middle_NN1 and_CC working_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 self-ascription_NN1 ,_, 77%_NNU spontaneously_RR described_VVN themselves_PPX2 as_CSA middle-_JJ or_CC working-class_JJ ,_, while_CS a_AT1 further_JJR 5%_NNU added_VVD only_RR a_AT1 slight_JJ qualification_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 &quot;_" upper-middle_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
All_RR21 but_RR22 1%_NNU of_IO the_AT remainder_NN1 were_VBDR willing_JJ to_TO assign_VVI to_II themselves_PPX2 ,_, when_CS prompted_VVN ,_, a_AT1 middle-_NN1 or_CC working-class_JJ label_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 point_VV0 out_RP ,_, &quot;_" It_PPH1 is_VBZ difficult_JJ not_XX to_TO see_VVI this_DD1 as_CSA evidence_NN1 of_IO the_AT acceptance_NN1 of_IO the_AT view_NN1 that_CST British_JJ society_NN1 is_VBZ divided_VVN into_II two_MC primary_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ much_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN sociologist_NN1 's_GE simplification_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 seems_VVZ to_TO be_VBI deeply_RR rooted_VVN in_II the_AT mind_NN1 of_IO the_AT ordinary_JJ British_JJ citizen_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Most_DAT respondents_NN2 characterized_VVD class_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG based_VVN on_II occupation_NN1 ,_, and_CC most_DAT (_( Table_NN1 1.4_MC )_) identified_VVD themselves_PPX2 as_CSA being_VBG in_II the_AT class_NN1 suggested_VVN by_II the_AT occupation_NN1 of_IO the_AT head_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE household_NN1 ._. 
The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 is_VBZ political_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 social_JJ ._. 
For_IF most_DAT of_IO the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 significant_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II class_NN1 and_CC politics_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 has_VHZ attracted_VVN largely_RR but_CCB not_XX wholly_RR the_AT support_NN1 of_IO the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 that_DD1 of_IO the_AT middle_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
The_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT class-party_JJ nexus_NN1 will_VM be_VBI explored_VVN in_II more_DAR detail_NN1 shortly_RR ._. 
In_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ some_DD evidence_NN1 of_IO decline_NN1 in_II class_NN1 identifications_NN2 and_CC in_II the_AT correlation_NN1 between_II class_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA decline_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN relative_JJ ._. 
Class_NN1 remains_VVZ a_AT1 principal_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO British_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
Most_DAT Britons_NN2 continue_VV0 to_TO ascribe_VVI themselves_PPX2 to_II a_AT1 particular_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
Politicians_NN2 analyze_VV0 their_APPGE support_NN1 in_II class_NN1 terms_NN2 ,_, and_CC sociologists_NN2 would_VM be_VBI lost_VVN without_IW it_PPH1 ._. 
Education_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ best_RRT seen_VVN in_II pyramidal_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
All_DB children_NN2 receive_VV0 a_AT1 primary_NN1 and_CC secondary_JJ school_NN1 education_NN1 ._. 
Thereafter_RT ,_, only_RR a_AT1 minority_NN1 proceed_VV0 to_II institutions_NN2 of_IO further_JJR education_NN1 and_CC but_CCB a_AT1 small_JJ percentage_NN1 enter_VV0 university_NN1 ._. 
For_IF children_NN2 receiving_VVG education_NN1 at_II private_JJ schools_NN2 ,_, the_AT structure_NN1 is_VBZ less_RGR pyramidal_JJ :_: A_AT1 greater_JJR proportion_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 educated_VVN at_II private_JJ schools_NN2 proceed_VV0 to_II university_NN1 than_CSN those_DD2 attending_VVG state_NN1 schools_NN2 ._. 
Education_NN1 After_II entering_VVG primary_JJ school_NN1 at_II the_AT age_NN1 of_IO 5_MC ,_, children_NN2 in_II England_NP1 receive_VV0 a_AT1 common_JJ education_NN1 until_CS the_AT age_NN1 of_IO 11_MC ,_, when_CS they_PPHS2 enter_VV0 secondary_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
Most_DAT pupils_NN2 now_RT attend_VV0 what_DDQ are_VBR termed_VVN comprehensive_JJ schools_NN2 ,_, schools_NN2 whose_DDQGE enrollment_NN1 criteria_NN2 are_VBR geographic_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 academic_JJ ._. 
In_II the_AT two_MC decades_NNT2 following_RA the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 ,_, secondary_JJ schools_NN2 were_VBDR divided_VVN into_II grammar_NN1 and_CC secondary_JJ modern_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT former_DA ,_, scholastic_JJ skills_NN2 were_VBDR stressed_VVN ,_, with_IW a_AT1 large_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO students_NN2 staying_VVG beyond_II the_AT minimum_JJ school-leaving_JJ age_NN1 (_( then_RT 15_MC )_) and_CC proceeding_VVG to_II university_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT latter_DA ,_, emphasis_NN1 was_VBDZ placed_VVN on_II practical_JJ skills_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 technical_JJ drawing_NN1 and_CC woodwork_NN1 ,_, with_IW some_DD pupils_NN2 going_VVG on_RP to_II some_DD form_NN1 of_IO technical_JJ college_NN1 but_CCB with_IW most_DAT leaving_NN1 at_II 15_MC years_NNT2 of_IO age_NN1 and_CC few_DA2 if_CS any_DD achieving_VVG university_NN1 entrance_NN1 ._. 
Selection_NN1 for_IF grammar_NN1 schools_NN2 was_VBDZ based_VVN on_II an_AT1 intelligence_NN1 test_NN1 known_VVN as_II the_AT &quot;_" Eleven-plus_JJ &quot;_" examination_NN1 ,_, taken_VVN ,_, as_CSA the_AT name_NN1 suggests_VVZ ,_, when_CS primary_JJ schoolchildren_NN2 reached_VVD the_AT age_NN1 of_IO 11_MC ,_, i.e._REX ,_, at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE primary_JJ education_NN1 ._. 
Labour_JJ party_NN1 politicians_NN2 came_VVD to_TO view_VVI this_DD1 examination_NN1 and_CC the_AT consequent_JJ dichotomy_NN1 between_II grammar_NN1 and_CC secondary_JJ modern_JJ schools_NN2 as_CSA educationally_RR questionable_JJ and_CC socially_RR divisive_JJ :_: those_DD2 attending_VVG secondary_JJ modern_JJ schools_NN2 were_VBDR seen_VVN as_CSA &quot;_" failures_NN2 &quot;_" and_CC their_APPGE subsequent_JJ job_NN1 opportunities_NN2 limited_VVN by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE education_NN1 ._. 
Grammar_NN1 school_NN1 pupils_NN2 were_VBDR drawn_VVN disproportionately_RR from_II middle-class_JJ families_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1965_MC ,_, the_AT then_JJ Labour_JJ government_NN1 introduced_VVD a_AT1 scheme_NN1 of_IO reform_NN1 requiring_VVG local_JJ authorities_NN2 to_TO take_VVI steps_NN2 to_TO dispense_VVI with_IW the_AT Eleven-plus_JJ and_CC introduce_VVI a_AT1 scheme_NN1 of_IO comprehensive_JJ education_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 authorities_NN2 responded_VVD reluctantly_RR ,_, some_DD resisting_VVG the_AT government_NN1 's_GE wishes_NN2 ,_, and_CC only_RR in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 did_VDD the_AT number_NN1 of_IO pupils_NN2 in_II comprehensive_JJ schools_NN2 exceed_VV0 the_AT number_NN1 attending_VVG selective_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1971_MC ,_, only_RR 38%_NNU of_IO secondary_JJ school-children_NN2 attended_VVD comprehensive_JJ schools_NN2 ;_; in_II 1980_MC ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 was_VBDZ 83%_NNU ._. 
From_II school_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 small_JJ proportion_NN1 proceed_VV0 to_II institutions_NN2 of_IO further_JJR and_CC higher_JJR education_NN1 ._. 
Only_RR a_AT1 small_JJ fraction_NN1 of_IO pupils_NN2 achieve_VV0 the_AT two_MC Advanced_JJ Level_NN1 (_( A-Levels_NN2 )_) examination_NN1 passes_VVZ that_CST constitute_VV0 the_AT minimum_JJ requirement_NN1 for_IF university_NN1 entrance_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1979-1980_MCMC ,_, fewer_DAR than_CSN 30%_NNU of_IO girls_NN2 leaving_VVG school_NN1 and_CC under_RG 20%_NNU of_IO boys_NN2 entered_VVD full-time_RR further_JJR education_NN1 ._. 
Fewer_DAR than_CSN 10%_NNU (_( 8.6%_FO of_IO boys_NN2 ,_, 6.5%_FO of_IO girls_NN2 )_) went_VVD on_RP to_TO study_VVI full-time_JJ for_IF a_AT1 degree_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS secondary_JJ education_NN1 is_VBZ compulsory_JJ ,_, parents_NN2 are_VBR not_XX required_VVN to_TO send_VVI their_APPGE children_NN2 to_TO state_VVI schools_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 can_VM opt_VVI instead_RR to_TO send_VVI children_NN2 to_II private_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
Here_RL the_AT enrollment_NN1 criterion_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR financial_JJ than_CSN geographic_JJ ._. 
Private_JJ schools_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO stress_VVI scholastic_JJ skills_NN2 and_CC concentrate_VVI on_II developing_VVG the_AT capacity_NN1 to_TO pass_VVI examinations_NN2 and_CC on_II building_NN1 self-confidence_NN1 ._. 
Believing_VVG their_APPGE children_NN2 will_VM receive_VVI a_AT1 better_JJR and_CC more_RGR disciplined_JJ education_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 greater_JJR prospect_NN1 of_IO university_NN1 entry_NN1 than_CSN from_II a_AT1 state_NN1 school_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 parents_NN2 who_PNQS can_VM afford_VVI it_PPH1 send_VV0 their_APPGE children_NN2 to_II such_DA private_JJ institutions_NN2 ,_, known_VVN (_( confusingly_RR )_) as_CSA &quot;_" public_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Fees_NN2 at_II such_DA schools_NN2 will_VM vary_VVI ,_, depending_II21 on_II22 the_AT status_NN1 of_IO the_AT school_NN1 ._. 
The_AT more_RGR prestigious_JJ such_II21 as_II22 Eton_NP1 ,_, Harrow_NP1 and_CC Winchester_NP1 can_VM afford_VVI to_TO charge_VVI annual_JJ fees_NN2 in_II31 excess_II32 of_II33 4,000_MC (_( more_RRR than_CSN $6,000_NNU in_II 1983_MC terms_NN2 )_) ,_, whereas_CS some_DD less_DAR prestigious_JJ day_NNT1 schools_NN2 may_VM charge_VVI less_DAR than_CSN 1,000_MC per_II year_NNT1 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, fewer_DAR than_CSN 6%_NNU of_IO the_AT total_JJ school_NN1 population_NN1 were_VBDR attending_VVG assisted_JJ and_CC independent_JJ schools_NN2 yet_RR more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 quarter_NN1 of_IO University_NN1 entrants_NN2 continued_VVD to_TO be_VBI drawn_VVN from_II private_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR various_JJ forms_NN2 of_IO higher_JJR and_CC further_JJR education_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR various_JJ technical_JJ colleges_NN2 and_CC colleges_NN2 of_IO further_JJR education_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT institutions_NN2 at_II the_AT top_NN1 of_IO the_AT pyramid_NN1 polytechnics_NN2 and_CC universities_NN2 ._. 
Polytechnics_NN2 stress_VV0 more_RGR vocational_JJ ,_, practical_JJ subjects_NN2 ,_, often_RR providing_VVG sandwich_NN1 courses_NN2 (_( part_NN1 teaching_NN1 ,_, part_NN1 practical_JJ job_NN1 experience_NN1 )_) ,_, while_CS universities_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO stress_VVI more_RGR academic_JJ subjects_NN2 ._. 
Relative_II21 to_II22 the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR few_DA2 universities_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 :_: a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 46_MC ._. 
Of_IO these_DD2 ,_, 20_MC have_VH0 been_VBN founded_VVN since_II 1960_MC ._. 
The_AT most_RGT prestigious_JJ tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI the_AT oldest_JJT :_: Oxford_NP1 ,_, Cambridge_NP1 ,_, and_CC ,_, in_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, St._NP1 Andrew_NP1 's_GE ._. 
The_AT Open_JJ University_NN1 is_VBZ notable_JJ for_IF being_VBG a_AT1 nonresidential_JJ university_NN1 ,_, providing_VVG tuition_NN1 by_II correspondence_NN1 and_CC though_CS special_JJ television_NN1 and_CC radio_NN1 progams_NN2 ;_; it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ university_NN1 that_CST required_VVD no_AT formal_JJ academic_JJ qualifications_NN2 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO enroll_VVI ._. 
The_AT newest_JJT university_NN1 ,_, at_II Buckingham_NP1 ,_, is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ one_PN1 to_TO receive_VVI no_AT support_NN1 from_II public_JJ funds_NN2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT only_JJ wholly_RR private_JJ university_NN1 ._. 
Of_IO the_AT more_DAR than_CSN half-million_NNO students_NN2 in_II full-time_RR higher_JJR education_NN1 in_II 1980_MC ,_, fewer_DAR than_CSN 200,000_MC were_VBDR at_II a_AT1 university_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 university_NN1 education_NN1 continues_VVZ to_TO provide_VVI occupational_JJ advantage_NN1 ._. 
Of_IO graduates_NN2 ,_, more_RRR than_CSN 80%_NNU have_VH0 ended_VVN up_RP in_II the_AT professional_JJ and_CC managerial_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
As_II such_DA ,_, they_PPHS2 constitute_VV0 fewer_DAR than_CSN one-third_MF of_IO those_DD2 in_II these_DD2 classes_NN2 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ these_DD2 classes_NN2 that_CST will_VM provide_VVI more_DAR children_NN2 than_CSN any_DD other_JJ for_IF university_NN1 entry_NN1 ._. 
The_AT professional_JJ and_CC managerial_JJ classes_NN2 made_VVD up_RP 18%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 in_II 1971_MC :_: their_APPGE children_NN2 formed_VVD 51%_NNU of_IO university_NN1 entrants_NN2 in_II 1975_MC and_CC 54%_NNU in_II 1979_MC ._. 
The_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO marketable_JJ wealth_NN1 among_II the_AT population_NN1 is_VBZ skewed_VVN in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 a_AT1 minority_NN1 ._. 
Marketable_JJ wealth_NN1 comprises_VVZ stocks_NN2 and_CC shares_NN2 ,_, cash_NN1 ,_, bank_NN1 deposits_NN2 ,_, consumer_NN1 durables_NN2 ,_, buildings_NN2 ,_, trade_NN1 assets_NN2 ,_, land_NN1 ,_, and_CC dwellings_NN2 net_NN1 of_IO mortgage_NN1 debt_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1971_MC ,_, approximately_RR one-third_MF of_IO the_AT total_JJ marketable_JJ wealth_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ owned_VVN by_II 1%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ._. 
Two-thirds_MF was_VBDZ owned_VVN by_II the_AT most_RGT wealthy_JJ 10%_NNU ._. 
These_DD2 figures_NN2 showed_VVD a_AT1 decline_NN1 during_II the_AT next_MD three_MC years_NNT2 (_( the_AT result_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT price_NN1 of_IO stocks_NN2 and_CC shares_NN2 )_) and_CC little_RR change_VV0 thereafter_RT ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, just_RR under_RG 25%_NNU of_IO the_AT marketable_JJ wealth_NN1 was_VBDZ owned_VVN by_II 1%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ,_, and_CC 59%_NNU was_VBDZ owned_VVN by_II 10%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ._. 
Personal_JJ Wealth_NN1 and_CC Taxation_NN1 When_CS occupational_JJ and_CC state_VV0 pension_NN1 rights_NN2 are_VBR added_VVN to_II marketable_JJ wealth_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO distribution_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Table_NN1 1.5_MC )_) ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, only_RR 13%_NNU of_IO this_DD1 aggregate_JJ wealth_NN1 was_VBDZ owned_VVN by_II 1%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 and_CC 37%_NNU by_II 10%_NNU of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ._. 
Over_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 shift_NN1 in_II the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO wealth_NN1 in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 slightly_RR more_DAR equality_NN1 ,_, though_CS most_DAT wealth_NN1 clearly_RR remains_VVZ in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO the_AT minority_NN1 ._. 
In_II income_NN1 ,_, approximately_RR two-thirds_MF of_IO the_AT total_JJ household_NN1 income_NN1 before_II tax_NN1 comes_VVZ from_II wages_NN2 and_CC salaries_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, the_AT average_JJ gross_JJ weekly_JJ earnings_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 male_JJ manual_JJ employee_NN1 was_VBDZ 112_MC (_( approximately_RR $175_NNU at_II 1983_MC exchange_NN1 rates_NN2 )_) and_CC of_IO a_AT1 nonmanual_JJ employee_NN1 ,_, 141_MC (_( about_RG $220_NNU )_) ._. 
The_AT equivalent_JJ figures_NN2 for_IF female_JJ workers_NN2 were_VBDR 68_MC and_CC 83_MC respectively_RR ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT progressive_JJ nature_NN1 of_IO taxation_NN1 ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO earnings_NN2 paid_VVN in_II direct_JJ taxation_NN1 varies_VVZ ._. 
In_II 1980-81_MCMC the_AT highest_JJT 10%_NNU of_IO earners_NN2 paid_VVN approximately_RR one-quarter_MF of_IO their_APPGE earnings_NN2 in_II direct_JJ taxation_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 who_PNQS were_VBDR in_II the_AT lowest_JJT 10%_NNU of_IO earners_NN2 paid_VVD fifteen_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. 
Expressed_VVN as_II a_AT1 percentage_NN1 of_IO the_AT gross_JJ national_JJ product_NN1 (_( GNP_NN1 )_) ,_, total_JJ taxes_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 in_II 1978_MC accounted_VVD for_IF 39%_NNU of_IO the_AT GNP_NN1 ._. 
Compared_VVN with_IW other_JJ countries_NN2 in_II the_AT OECD_NP1 ,_, this_DD1 was_VBDZ not_XX an_AT1 exceptional_JJ proportion_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ unusual_JJ compared_VVN with_IW the_AT other_JJ countries_NN2 in_II that_DD1 it_PPH1 actually_RR represented_VVN a_AT1 decline_NN1 (_( of_IO 2%_NNU )_) from_II the_AT 1971_MC figure_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1978_MC ,_, total_JJ taxes_NN2 as_II a_AT1 percentage_NN1 of_IO the_AT GNP_NN1 exceeded_VVD 40%_NNU in_II Germany_NP1 ,_, France_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Scandinavian_JJ countries_NN2 (_( it_PPH1 was_VBDZ 60%_NNU in_II Sweden_NP1 )_) ._. 
They_PPHS2 were_VBDR less_DAR than_CSN 40%_NNU in_II Canada_NP1 ,_, the_AT USA_NP1 (_( 34%_NNU )_) ,_, Italy_NP1 ,_, Japan_NP1 ,_, and_CC Switzerland_NP1 ._. 
A_AT1 slightly_RR different_JJ relationship_NN1 emerges_VVZ when_RRQ only_RR direct_JJ taxes_NN2 are_VBR expressed_VVN as_II a_AT1 proportion_NN1 of_IO the_AT GNP_NN1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 moves_VVZ further_RRR down_RP the_AT table_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1978_MC ,_, direct_JJ taxes_NN2 represented_VVD 23%_NNU of_IO the_AT GNP_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 lower_JJR percentage_NN1 than_CSN in_II Germany_NP1 ,_, France_NP1 ,_, the_AT Scandinavian_JJ countries_NN2 (_( 44%_NNU in_II Sweden_NP1 's_GE case_NN1 )_) ,_, Italy_NP1 ,_, Switzerland_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 (_( 24%_NNU )_) ._. 
Japan_NP1 and_CC Canada_NP1 were_VBDR the_AT only_JJ major_JJ OECD_NP1 countries_NN2 with_IW percentages_NN2 lower_JJR than_CSN that_DD1 for_IF Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT various_JJ values_NN2 and_CC beliefs_NN2 that_CST coalesce_VV0 to_TO maintain_VVI ,_, reinforce_VV0 ,_, or_CC sometimes_RT modify_VV0 the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 are_VBR not_XX generated_VVN in_II a_AT1 vacuum_NN1 ;_; they_PPHS2 are_VBR acquired_VVN through_II a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO socialization_NN1 ._. 
In_II that_DD1 process_NN1 the_AT most_RGT important_JJ influences_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR family_NN1 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, occupation_NN1 ,_, and_CC geographic_JJ location_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA influences_NN2 serve_VV0 to_TO instill_VVI an_AT1 awareness_NN1 of_IO one_PN1 's_GE place_NN1 in_II or_CC relationship_NN1 to_II society_NN1 and_CC the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
POLITICAL_JJ SOCIALIZATION_NN1 Although_CS much_DA1 influence_NN1 is_VBZ placed_VVN on_II the_AT individual_NN1 ,_, the_AT family_NN1 remains_VVZ the_AT most_RGT important_JJ social_JJ unit_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Most_DAT households_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 comprise_VV0 married_JJ couples_NN2 with_IW dependent_JJ children_NN2 ._. 
The_AT second_MD largest_JJT proportion_NN1 comprise_VV0 married_JJ couples_NN2 with_IW no_AT children_NN2 ,_, then_RT married_JJ couples_NN2 with_IW independent_JJ children_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, only_RR 8%_NNU of_IO people_NN lived_VVD on_II their_APPGE own_DA (_( double_VV0 the_AT percentage_NN1 in_II 1961_MC )_) ,_, though_CS this_DD1 does_VDZ not_XX signify_VVI social_JJ detachment_NN1 from_II a_AT1 family_NN1 ._. 
For_IF many_DA2 people_NN living_VVG on_II their_APPGE own_DA ,_, their_APPGE social_JJ world_NN1 may_VM revolve_VVI around_RP visits_NN2 from_II or_CC to_II relatives_NN2 ._. 
Family_NN1 units_NN2 are_VBR also_RR provided_VVN by_II couples_NN2 living_VVG together_RL but_CCB not_XX married_JJ ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, the_AT General_JJ Household_NN1 Survey_NN1 found_VVD that_CST 10%_NNU of_IO nonmarried_JJ women_NN2 were_VBDR cohabiting_VVG ._. 
(_( The_AT question_NN1 was_VBDZ addressed_VVN only_RR to_II women_NN2 ._. )_) 
Although_CS marriages_NN2 are_VBR becoming_VVG less_RGR stable_JJ in_II that_DD1 divorce_NN1 rates_NN2 continue_VV0 to_TO rise_VVI ,_, many_DA2 divorcees_NN2 remarry_VV0 or_CC cohabit_VV0 with_IW another_DD1 partner_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, one-third_MF of_IO all_DB marriages_NN2 constituted_JJ remarriages_NN2 for_IF one_MC1 or_CC both_DB2 partners_NN2 ._. 
Of_IO divorced_JJ or_CC separated_JJ women_NN2 ,_, 18%_NNU were_VBDR cohabiting_VVG ._. 
Family_NN1 It_PPH1 is_VBZ from_II parents_NN2 that_CST children_NN2 inherit_VV0 social_JJ and_CC political_JJ values_NN2 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, children_NN2 often_RR acquire_VV0 less_DAR class_NN1 orientation_NN1 from_II parents_NN2 not_XX only_RR in_II taught_JJ but_CCB also_RR in_II practical_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
Children_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO obtain_VVI jobs_NN2 in_II the_AT class_NN1 bracket_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE fathers_NN2 than_CSN they_PPHS2 are_VBR to_TO be_VBI socially_RR mobile_JJ ._. 
In_II the_AT Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 survey_NN1 of_IO 1970_MC ,_, most_RGT working-class_JJ respondents_NN2 came_VVD from_II families_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT father_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR working-class_JJ ._. 
Fewer_DAR than_CSN one-fifth_MF of_IO respondents_NN2 had_VHD experienced_VVN upward_JJ mobility_NN1 and_CC slightly_RR fewer_DAR than_CSN one-tenth_MF had_VHD experienced_VVN downward_JJ mobility_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 study_NN1 of_IO the_AT earnings_NN2 of_IO children_NN2 in_II York_NP1 in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 compared_VVN with_IW their_APPGE fathers_NN2 '_GE earnings_NN2 in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 found_VVD a_AT1 coefficient_NN1 of_IO earnings_NN2 of_IO nearly_RR 0.5_MC ._. 
That_CST this_DD1 should_VM be_VBI so_RR is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ ._. 
Children_NN2 raised_VVN in_II a_AT1 middle-class_JJ family_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT parents_NN2 and_CC grandparents_NN2 were_VBDR university-educated_JJ are_VBR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI brought_VVN up_RP in_II an_AT1 environment_NN1 in_II which_DDQ reading_NN1 and_CC learning_NN1 are_VBR stressed_VVN and_CC going_VVG to_II university_NN1 is_VBZ encouraged_VVN ._. 
A_AT1 university_NN1 education_NN1 is_VBZ likely_JJ to_TO result_VVI in_II a_AT1 better-paying_JJR job_NN1 than_CSN is_VBZ a_AT1 nonuniversity_NN1 education_NN1 ._. 
Hence_RR ,_, graduates_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO obtain_VVI middle-class_JJ occupations_NN2 than_CSN are_VBR nongraduates_NN2 ._. 
Working-class_JJ families_NN2 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, are_VBR less_RGR likely_JJ to_TO provide_VVI an_AT1 environment_NN1 that_CST encourages_VVZ scholastic_JJ skills_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 may_VM not_XX be_VBI out_RP of_IO unwillingness_NN1 but_CCB rather_RR ignorance_NN1 on_II41 the_II42 part_II43 of_II44 parents_NN2 :_: they_PPHS2 do_VD0 not_XX know_VVI how_RRQ to_TO go_VVI about_II encouraging_VVG such_DA skills_NN2 ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 they_PPHS2 may_VM not_XX wish_VVI to_TO ._. 
The_AT need_NN1 to_TO supplement_VVI the_AT family_NN1 income_NN1 motivates_VVZ some_DD parents_NN2 to_TO encourage_VVI children_NN2 to_TO go_VVI out_RP and_CC earn_VVI a_AT1 wage_NN1 as_RG soon_RR as_CSA possible_JJ ._. 
Years_NNT2 spent_VVN at_II university_NN1 are_VBR financially_RR unrewarding_JJ from_II the_AT parents_NN2 '_GE perspective_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 attachment_NN1 to_II class_NN1 may_VM also_RR limit_VVI the_AT ambitions_NN2 of_IO both_RR parents_NN2 and_CC children_NN2 ._. 
Existing_JJ in_II a_AT1 working-class_JJ milieu_NN1 reinforced_VVN by_II the_AT still-existing_JJ perception_NN1 of_IO status_NN1 can_VM create_VVI a_AT1 cocooning_JJ effect_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 provides_VVZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT familiar_JJ and_CC the_AT comfortable_JJ (_( in_II psychological_JJ if_CS not_XX financial_JJ terms_NN2 )_) ._. 
To_TO leave_VVI a_AT1 working-class_JJ environment_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO head_VVI for_IF the_AT unknown_JJ ._. 
From_II parents_NN2 ,_, children_NN2 can_VM acquire_VVI habits_NN2 and_CC tastes_NN2 that_CST are_VBR peculiar_JJ if_CS not_XX exclusive_JJ to_II a_AT1 particular_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
Certain_JJ sports_NN2 are_VBR working-class_JJ sports_NN2 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, darts_VVZ )_) ,_, others_NN2 middle-class_JJ (_( squash_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 )_) ._. 
Such_DA tastes_NN2 are_VBR passed_VVN from_II one_MC1 generation_NN1 to_II the_AT other_JJ ,_, reinforced_VVN by_II the_AT environment_NN1 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 family_NN1 exists_VVZ ._. 
Among_II the_AT habits_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 passed_VVN from_II parent_NN1 to_II child_NN1 are_VBR political_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
Children_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI politically_RR interested_JJ and_CC active_JJ if_CS their_APPGE parents_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN similarly_RR interested_JJ or_CC active_JJ ._. 
Most_DAT important_JJ ,_, children_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO inherit_VVI their_APPGE parents_NN2 '_GE partisan_JJ preferences_NN2 ._. 
Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 write_VV0 ,_, &quot;_" Partisanship_NN1 over_II the_AT individual_NN1 's_GE lifetime_NNT1 has_VHZ some_DD of_IO the_AT quality_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 photographic_JJ reproduction_NN1 that_CST deteriorates_VVZ with_IW time_NNT1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 fairly_RR sharp_JJ copy_NN1 of_IO the_AT parents_NN2 '_GE original_JJ at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO political_JJ awareness_NN1 ,_, but_CCB over_II the_AT years_NNT2 it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ somewhat_RR blurred_VVN ,_, although_CS remaining_VVG easily_RR recognizable_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT influence_NN1 of_IO parents_NN2 is_VBZ strongest_JJT when_CS both_DB2 parents_NN2 share_VV0 the_AT same_DA partisan_JJ preference_NN1 ._. 
In_II Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 '_GE survey_NN1 ,_, of_IO children_NN2 whose_DDQGE parents_NN2 had_VHD both_RR been_VBN Conservative_JJ ,_, 89%_NNU expressed_VVD a_AT1 first_MD preference_NN1 for_IF the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 partisanship_NN1 is_VBZ reinforced_VVN when_CS parents_NN2 '_GE preferences_NN2 are_VBR congruent_JJ with_IW the_AT influences_NN2 to_TO be_VBI identified_VVN below_RL ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ evidence_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 parent-party_JJ nexus_NN1 is_VBZ declining_VVG ._. 
In_II the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, nearly_RR 8_MC million_NNO people_NN voted_VVN for_IF a_AT1 political_JJ ticket_NN1 (_( Liberal/Social_JJ Democratic_JJ Party_NN1 Alliance_NN1 )_) for_IF which_DDQ their_APPGE parents_NN2 could_VM not_XX previously_RR have_VHI voted_VVN ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, family_NN1 remains_VVZ the_AT most_RGT important_JJ primary_JJ influence_NN1 in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 ._. 
Divergent_JJ influences_NN2 may_VM modify_VVI or_CC dispel_VVI values_NN2 imbued_VVN as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO parental_JJ influence_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB in_II seeking_VVG to_TO make_VVI sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ and_CC political_JJ environment_NN1 in_II which_DDQ he_PPHS1 or_CC she_PPHS1 lives_VVZ ,_, an_AT1 individual_NN1 's_GE first_MD and_CC foremost_JJT point_NN1 of_IO reference_NN1 is_VBZ provided_VVN by_II father_NN1 (_( in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 partisan_JJ preference_NN1 ,_, more_RGR likely_JJ father_NN1 )_) and_CC mother_NN1 ._. 
Formal_JJ education_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II political_JJ socialization_NN1 ,_, less_RRR for_IF its_APPGE effect_NN1 on_II partisan_JJ support_NN1 (_( family_NN1 remains_VVZ the_AT predominant_JJ influence_NN1 )_) than_CSN for_IF helping_VVG shape_NN1 awareness_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 and_CC explicitly_RR or_CC ,_, more_RGR often_RR ,_, implicitly_RR ,_, the_AT values_NN2 that_CST underpin_VV0 it_PPH1 ._. 
Education_NN1 In_II their_APPGE study_NN1 of_IO the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, Almond_NP1 and_CC Verba_NP1 found_VVD that_CST there_EX were_VBDR differences_NN2 in_II attitude_NN1 toward_II government_NN1 between_II those_DD2 with_IW different_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO education_NN1 ,_, and_CC between_II those_DD2 who_PNQS had_VHD received_VVN some_DD formal_JJ education_NN1 and_CC those_DD2 who_PNQS had_VHD received_VVN none_PN ._. 
The_AT more_RGR extensive_JJ the_AT education_NN1 ,_, up_II21 to_II22 university_NN1 level_NN1 ,_, the_AT greater_JJR the_AT perceived_JJ significance_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 action_NN1 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, the_AT overwhelming_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 with_IW some_DD formal_JJ education_NN1 ,_, primary_JJ or_CC above_RL ,_, considered_VVD that_CST national_JJ government_NN1 had_VHD some_DD effect_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT countries_NN2 studied_VVN in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 proportion_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 had_VHD received_VVN no_AT formal_JJ education_NN1 (_( Italy_NP1 and_CC Mexico_NP1 )_) ,_, only_RR a_AT1 small_JJ proportion_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 without_IW an_AT1 education_NN1 felt_VVD that_CST national_JJ government_NN1 had_VHD some_DD effect_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 with_IW a_AT1 formal_JJ education_NN1 ascribing_VVG influence_NN1 to_II the_AT government_NN1 was_VBDZ lower_JJR than_CSN that_DD1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, albeit_CS still_RR a_AT1 majority_NN1 among_II the_AT university-educated_NN1 )_) ._. 
From_II this_DD1 ,_, one_PN1 may_VM infer_VVI the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 for_IF the_AT purposes_NN2 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 ._. 
The_AT correlation_NN1 between_II education_NN1 and_CC political_JJ socialization_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ not_XX greatly_RR dissimilar_JJ to_II that_DD1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
Those_DD2 with_IW higher_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO education_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 with_IW only_RR a_AT1 primary_JJ education_NN1 to_TO attach_VVI significance_NN1 to_II the_AT action_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ,_, to_TO believe_VVI that_CST they_PPHS2 can_VM have_VHI some_DD influence_NN1 on_II government_NN1 ,_, to_TO pay_VVI attention_NN1 to_II politics_NN1 and_CC election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 ,_, to_TO take_VVI the_AT view_NN1 (_( though_CS not_XX necessarily_RR to_II practice_NN1 it_PPH1 )_) that_CST citizens_NN2 should_VM be_VBI active_JJ in_II their_APPGE local_JJ community_NN1 ,_, to_TO hold_VVI opinions_NN2 on_II a_AT1 wide_JJ range_NN1 of_IO political_JJ subjects_NN2 ,_, and_CC to_TO be_VBI actively_RR involved_JJ in_II politics_NN1 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, a_RR21 little_RR22 over_II 3%_NNU of_IO the_AT adult_NN1 population_NN1 have_VH0 degrees_NN2 ._. 
Of_IO the_AT members_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 (_( MPs_NNU )_) who_PNQS sat_VVD in_II the_AT Parliament_NN1 of_IO 1979-1983_MCMC ,_, over_RG 62%_NNU were_VBDR graduates_NN2 ._. 
Where_CS Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 differ_VV0 is_VBZ in_II the_AT way_NN1 that_CST the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 is_VBZ taught_VVN ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, manifest_JJ teaching_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ,_, insofar_CS21 as_CS22 it_PPH1 is_VBZ manifest_JJ ,_, can_VM best_RRT be_VBI described_VVN as_CSA subtle_JJ ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 emphasis_NN1 on_II symbolic_JJ acts_NN2 (_( there_EX is_VBZ no_AT obvious_JJ English_JJ equivalent_NN1 to_II saluting_VVG the_AT flag_NN1 )_) and_CC little_RR formal_JJ teaching_NN1 of_IO politics_NN1 as_II such_DA ._. 
The_AT media_NN of_IO other_JJ subjects_NN2 are_VBR employed_VVN ._. 
Stradling_NP1 writes_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" Until_II comparatively_RR recently_RR the_AT prevailing_JJ view_NN1 on_II political_JJ education_NN1 in_II England_NP1 was_VBDZ either_RR that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ already_RR adequately_RR taken_VVN care_NN1 of_IO through_JJ History_NN1 ,_, Geography_NN1 ,_, Social_JJ or_CC General_JJ Studies_NN2 or_CC that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 wholly_RR unsuitable_JJ subject_NN1 for_IF the_AT school_NN1 curriculum_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Only_RR recently_RR has_VHZ the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO study_VVI politics_NN1 as_II a_AT1 distinct_JJ and_CC legitimate_JJ subject_NN1 been_VBN expanded_VVN within_II secondary_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
Relative_II21 to_II22 other_JJ disciplines_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 remains_VVZ a_AT1 little-taught_JJ subject_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT implications_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 are_VBR not_XX as_RG great_JJ as_CSA might_VM be_VBI thought_VVN ._. 
Almond_NN1 and_CC Verba_NP1 found_VVD that_CST having_VHG been_VBN taught_VVN about_II government_NN1 increases_VVZ a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO subjective_JJ political_JJ competence_NN1 ._. 
Against_II this_DD1 ,_, some_DD studies_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, where_CS formal_JJ study_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" civics_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ more_RGR extensive_JJ than_CSN in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, found_VVD that_CST taking_VVG such_DA courses_NN2 had_VHD little_DA1 impact_NN1 on_II political_JJ knowledge_NN1 and_CC attitudes_NN2 ._. 
Similar_JJ findings_NN2 have_VH0 resulted_VVN from_II a_AT1 recent_JJ survey_NN1 of_IO British_JJ school_NN1 pupils_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ more_RGR important_JJ is_VBZ the_AT length_NN1 of_IO period_NN1 in_II education_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT British_JJ study_NN1 ,_, pupils_NN2 staying_VVG on_RP at_II school_NN1 until_CS the_AT age_NN1 of_IO 18_MC achieved_VVN much_RR higher_JJR scores_NN2 on_II political_JJ knowledge_NN1 than_CSN did_VDD those_DD2 leaving_VVG school_NN1 at_II 16_MC ._. 
From_II this_DD1 ,_, one_PN1 might_VM hypothesize_VVI that_DD1 education_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ in_II developing_VVG the_AT intellectual_JJ skills_NN2 necessary_JJ to_TO absorb_VVI and_CC make_VVI sense_NN1 of_IO political_JJ material_NN1 communicated_VVN by_II other_JJ media_NN ._. 
Attendance_NN1 at_II school_NN1 ,_, and_CC particularly_RR at_II certain_JJ schools_NN2 ,_, can_VM be_VBI important_JJ also_RR in_II providing_VVG an_AT1 environment_NN1 that_CST can_VM serve_VVI to_TO reinforce_VVI certain_JJ norms_NN2 and_CC traditions_NN2 ._. 
At_II leading_VVG public_JJ schools_NN2 ,_, most_RGT notably_RR Eton_NP1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 tradition_NN1 of_IO providing_VVG MPs_NNU ,_, government_NN1 ministers_NN2 ,_, and_CC prime_JJ ministers_NN2 ._. 
At_II such_DA schools_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 pupil_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO consider_VVI pursuing_VVG a_AT1 political_JJ career_NN1 than_CSN is_VBZ the_AT case_NN1 with_IW pupils_NN2 attending_VVG an_AT1 inner-city_JJ comprehensive_JJ school_NN1 with_IW no_AT such_DA tradition_NN1 ._. 
In_II most_DAT cases_NN2 ,_, the_AT school_NN1 environment_NN1 tends_VVZ to_TO reinforce_VVI the_AT influence_NN1 of_IO the_AT home_NN1 background_NN1 ._. 
Occupation_NN1 and_CC class_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, are_VBR closely_RR related_VVN ._. 
The_AT former_DA is_VBZ usually_RR employed_VVN as_II the_AT primary_JJ criterion_NN1 for_IF assessing_VVG the_AT latter_DA ._. 
Both_DB2 are_VBR important_JJ in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 ._. 
Occupation_NN1 and_CC Class_NN1 Certain_JJ occupations_NN2 are_VBR important_JJ in_II terms_NN2 not_XX only_RR of_IO class_NN1 but_CCB also_RR of_IO status_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 doctor_NN1 of_IO medicine_NN1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT same_DA social_JJ class_NN1 as_CSA a_AT1 company_NN1 director_NN1 but_CCB is_VBZ more_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN the_AT director_NN1 to_TO be_VBI accorded_VVN some_DD degree_NN1 of_IO deference_NN1 by_II the_AT local_JJ community_NN1 ._. 
Holding_VVG a_AT1 position_NN1 of_IO responsibility_NN1 gives_VVZ one_PN1 standing_VVG in_II the_AT community_NN1 ._. 
Holding_VVG jobs_NN2 that_CST are_VBR well_RR paying_VVG and/or_CC rewarding_VVG in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 personal_JJ self-satisfaction_NN1 may_VM increase_VVI one_PN1 's_GE contentment_NN1 with_IW the_AT society_NN1 in_II which_DDQ one_PN1 exists_VVZ ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, pursuing_VVG a_AT1 mundane_JJ ,_, poorly_RR paid_VVN job_NN1 or_CC no_AT job_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 may_VM provoke_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO alienation_NN1 from_II society_NN1 ._. 
Certain_JJ jobs_NN2 by_II their_APPGE nature_NN1 may_VM lead_VVI to_II greater_JJR social_JJ awareness_NN1 or_CC to_II a_AT1 greater_JJR degree_NN1 of_IO social_JJ intercourse_NN1 than_CSN others_NN2 ._. 
Class_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 abstraction_NN1 and_CC the_AT concept_NN1 acquires_VVZ meaning_VVG only_RR as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT socialization_NN1 process_VV0 just_JJ outlines_NN2 ._. 
From_II one_PN1 's_GE parents_NN2 ,_, education_NN1 ,_, occupation_NN1 ,_, and_CC associated_JJ life-style_NN1 one_PN1 acquires_VVZ an_AT1 awareness_NN1 of_IO social_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA awareness_NN1 becomes_VVZ important_JJ in_II helping_VVG clarify_VVI one_PN1 's_GE place_NN1 in_II society_NN1 and_CC ,_, thus_RR ,_, one_PN1 's_GE relationship_NN1 to_II others_NN2 in_II that_DD1 society_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 serves_VVZ to_TO give_VVI some_DD meaning_NN1 and_CC shape_NN1 to_II one_PN1 's_GE social_JJ existence_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ but_CCB not_XX complete_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II class_NN1 and_CC partisan_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
That_CST this_DD1 should_VM be_VBI so_RR is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ ._. 
Those_DD2 in_II middle-class_JJ occupations_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO be_VBI better_RRR paid_VVN and_CC pursue_VV0 a_AT1 preferred_JJ life-style_NN1 than_CSN those_DD2 in_II working-class_JJ occupations_NN2 (_( though_CS the_AT emphasis_NN1 should_VM be_VBI on_II the_AT likelihood_NN1 ,_, not_XX the_AT certainty_NN1 )_) ._. 
Hence_RR ,_, one_PN1 might_VM expect_VVI the_AT middle_JJ class_NN1 to_TO opt_VVI for_IF the_AT political_JJ party_NN1 most_RGT likely_JJ to_TO conserve_VVI the_AT existing_JJ state_NN1 of_IO affairs_NN2 ._. 
Those_DD2 in_II working-class_JJ jobs_NN2 and_CC those_DD2 with_IW no_AT jobs_NN2 at_RR21 all_RR22 might_VM be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO opt_VVI for_IF a_AT1 party_NN1 that_CST offers_VVZ some_DD degree_NN1 of_IO social_JJ change_NN1 and_CC appears_VVZ more_RGR empathic_JJ toward_II the_AT &quot;_" have-nots_NN2 &quot;_" than_CSN toward_II the_AT &quot;_" haves_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" This_DD1 hypothesis_NN1 is_VBZ largely_RR but_CCB not_XX wholly_RR borne_VVN out_RP by_II the_AT empirical_JJ evidence_NN1 ._. 
Middle-class_JJ voters_NN2 have_VH0 tended_VVN to_TO support_VVI the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, and_CC working-class_JJ voters_NN2 the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
The_AT relationship_NN1 has_VHZ never_RR been_VBN a_AT1 complete_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
Some_DD middle-class_JJ voters_NN2 have_VH0 supported_VVN the_AT Labour_JJ Party_NN1 and_CC about_II one-third_MF of_IO working-class_JJ voters_NN2 have_VH0 traditionally_RR cast_VVN their_APPGE ballots_NN2 for_IF Conservative_JJ candidates_NN2 ._. 
In_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO the_AT class-party_JJ tie_NN1 has_VHZ declined_VVN ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, class_NN1 provides_VVZ the_AT most_RGT important_JJ indicator_NN1 of_IO partisan_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
No_AT other_JJ indicator_NN1 has_VHZ proved_VVN so_RG reliable_JJ ._. 
Location_NN1 can_VM be_VBI important_JJ in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 in_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO senses_NN2 ._. 
The_AT location_NN1 of_IO one_PN1 's_GE residence_NN1 is_VBZ important_JJ ._. 
Living_VVG in_II an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO expensive_JJ detached_JJ houses_NN2 can_VM serve_VVI to_TO reinforce_VVI one_PN1 's_GE sense_NN1 of_IO being_VBG middle-class_JJ ._. 
The_AT area_NN1 provides_VVZ a_AT1 social_JJ milieu_NN1 that_CST reinforces_VVZ that_DD1 awareness_NN1 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, living_VVG in_II an_AT1 area_NN1 of_IO less_RGR expensive_JJ terraced_JJ accommodation_NN1 or_CC of_IO council_NN1 houses_NN2 (_( estates_NN2 composed_VVN of_IO houses_NN2 rented_VVN from_II the_AT local_JJ authority_NN1 are_VBR common_JJ )_) reinforces_VVZ one_PN1 's_GE identification_NN1 with_IW the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 ._. 
Within_II such_DA areas_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ often_RR a_AT1 particular_JJ lifestyle_NN1 ._. 
Location_NN1 The_AT independent_JJ influence_NN1 of_IO location_NN1 is_VBZ borne_VVN out_RP when_CS correlated_VVN with_IW partisan_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
Voters_NN2 who_PNQS live_VV0 in_II class-specific_JJ communities_NN2 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO vote_VVI for_IF the_AT relevant_JJ class-specific_JJ party_NN1 than_CSN are_VBR those_DD2 not_XX living_VVG in_II such_DA communities_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA Rose_NP1 observes_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" Working-class_JJ voters_NN2 in_II safe_JJ Labour_JJ seats_NN2 are_VBR much_RR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO vote_VVI Labour_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 in_II the_AT same_DA class_NN1 ,_, but_CCB living_VVG in_II a_AT1 marginal_JJ or_CC Conservative_JJ constituency_NN1 ._. 
Environment_NN1 affects_VVZ middle-class_JJ voters_NN2 in_II Conservative_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT effect_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX so_RG strong_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" Moving_VVG into_II such_DA specific_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, with_IW changes_NN2 in_II the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO home_NN1 ownership_NN1 ,_, can_VM effect_VVI a_AT1 change_NN1 in_II partisan_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 correlation_NN1 between_II partisan_JJ support_NN1 and_CC urban_JJ versus_II rural_JJ location_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 pattern_NN1 became_VVD more_RRR pronounced_VVN in_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 and_CC 1970s_MC2 ,_, as_CSA did_VDD the_AT division_NN1 between_II North_ND1 and_CC South_ND1 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 became_VVD the_AT dominant_JJ party_NN1 of_IO the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 that_DD1 of_IO the_AT South_ND1 ._. 
That_CST this_DD1 should_VM be_VBI so_RR is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ ,_, given_JJ changes_NN2 in_II employment_NN1 and_CC demographic_JJ patterns_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, Curtice_NP1 and_CC Steed_NP1 pointed_VVD out_RP that_CST &quot;_" the_AT peripheral_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO Britain_NP1 ,_, with_IW their_APPGE higher_JJR unemployment_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT declining_JJ inner_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO conurbations_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 become_VVN steadily_RR more_RGR Labour_JJ ;_; while_CS the_AT expanding_JJ ,_, more_RGR prosperous_JJ areas_NN2 have_VH0 become_VVN more_RGR Conservative_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" In_II the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ vote_NN1 declined_VVN in_II all_DB regions_NN2 by_II between_II 6%_NNU and_CC 12%_NNU ._. 
The_AT lowest_JJT regional_JJ decline_NN1 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II Scotland_NP1 ._. 
In_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, the_AT swing_NN1 against_II Labour_NN1 was_VBDZ half_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II rural_JJ and_CC mixed_VVD areas_NN2 ._. 
Labour_NN1 ,_, as_CSA one_MC1 analysis_NN1 showed_VVD ,_, remained_VVD the_AT party_NN1 of_IO the_AT traditional_JJ working_JJ class_NN1 of_IO the_AT council_NN1 estates_NN2 ,_, of_IO Scotland_NP1 ,_, and_CC of_IO the_AT North_ND1 ._. 
The_AT mass_JJ media_NN of_IO communication_NN1 are_VBR also_RR important_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR significant_JJ not_XX only_RR as_CSA media_NN for_IF transmitting_VVG material_NN1 ,_, television_NN1 now_RT being_VBG the_AT main_JJ source_NN1 of_IO political_JJ information_NN1 for_IF most_DAT people_NN ,_, but_CCB also_RR for_IF the_AT choice_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ material_NN1 to_TO transmit_VVI ._. 
By_II choosing_VVG to_TO transmit_VVI some_DD stories_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 others_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 in_II control_NN1 of_IO television_NN1 and_CC newspapers_NN2 can_VM have_VHI some_DD impact_NN1 on_II political_JJ perceptions_NN2 and_CC values_NN2 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT national_JJ orientation_NN1 of_IO the_AT broadcasting_NN1 media_NN and_CC of_IO newspapers_NN2 is_VBZ important_JJ ._. 
The_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 and_CC the_AT dual_JJ position_NN1 of_IO London_NP1 as_II the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE capital_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE largest_JJT city_NN1 has_VHZ facilitated_VVN a_AT1 national_JJ orientation_NN1 primarily_RR a_AT1 London_NP1 orientation_NN1 not_XX possible_JJ in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Mass_JJ Media_NN The_AT partisan_JJ influence_NN1 of_IO the_AT media_NN in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ unclear_JJ ._. 
The_AT broadcasting_NN1 media_NN are_VBR statutorily_RR required_VVN to_TO be_VBI impartial_JJ ._. 
Newspapers_NN2 can_VM and_CC do_VD0 express_VVI partisan_JJ preferences_NN2 ._. 
Newspapers_NN2 with_IW a_AT1 significant_JJ political_JJ reporting_NN1 are_VBR not_XX widely_RR read_VVN ,_, whereas_CS television_NN1 news_NN1 programs_NN2 are_VBR often_RR among_II the_AT most-watched_JJ programs_NN2 ._. 
Research_NN1 into_II the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT media_NN in_II Britain_NP1 is_VBZ not_XX extensive_JJ ._. 
What_DDQ research_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN done_VDN on_II their_APPGE effects_NN2 ,_, especially_RR in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, suggests_VVZ that_CST their_APPGE importance_NN1 is_VBZ primarily_RR as_II a_AT1 reinforcing_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 realigning_JJ agent_NN1 ._. 
The_AT significance_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 role_NN1 should_VM not_XX be_VBI underestimated_VVN ._. 
The_AT process_NN1 by_II which_DDQ a_AT1 individual_NN1 becomes_VVZ politically_RR socialized_VVN is_VBZ a_AT1 complex_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT influences_NN2 just_RR outlined_VVN are_VBR in_II most_DAT cases_NN2 the_AT more_RGR important_JJ ones_NN2 but_CCB they_PPHS2 are_VBR by_RR31 no_RR32 means_RR33 the_AT only_JJ ones_NN2 nor_CC are_VBR they_PPHS2 exclusive_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 clearly_RR interact_VV0 with_IW one_PPX121 another_PPX122 ,_, as_CSA has_VHZ been_VBN obvious_JJ from_II the_AT foregoing_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN virtually_RR impossible_JJ to_TO discuss_VVI one_MC1 influence_NN1 without_IW drawing_VVG out_RP the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO another_DD1 ._. 
Also_RR ,_, these_DD2 influences_NN2 are_VBR far_RG21 from_RG22 static_JJ ._. 
Changes_NN2 in_II family_NN1 structures_NN2 ,_, the_AT educational_JJ system_NN1 ,_, the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO employment_NN1 ,_, and_CC demographic_JJ and_CC housing_VVG patterns_NN2 may_VM affect_VVI the_AT socialization_NN1 process_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, children_NN2 staying_VVG longer_RRR in_II formal_JJ education_NN1 appear_VV0 to_TO acquire_VVI more_RGR political_JJ knowledge_NN1 than_CSN those_DD2 leaving_VVG school_NN1 earlier_RRR ._. 
More_DAR children_NN2 than_CSN before_II are_VBR now_RT acquiring_VVG a_AT1 formal_JJ education_NN1 beyond_II the_AT minimum_JJ school-leaving_JJ age_NN1 ._. 
Unemployment_NN1 may_VM generate_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO political_JJ alienation_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, unemployment_NN1 has_VHZ risen_VVN steeply_RR in_II Britain_NP1 in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 ._. 
A_AT1 Complex_NN1 Mix_VV0 The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO some_DD of_IO these_DD2 changes_NN2 will_VM be_VBI touched_VVN on_II later_JJR in_II this_DD1 work_NN1 ,_, particularly_RR in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO partisan_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, such_DA changes_NN2 are_VBR relative_JJ ._. 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT basic_JJ values_NN2 being_VBG transmitted_VVN in_II the_AT process_NN1 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 ,_, the_AT most_RGT significant_JJ feature_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX change_NN1 but_CCB rather_RR continuity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT media_NN for_IF political_JJ socialization_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 are_VBR not_XX dissimilar_JJ to_II those_DD2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC many_DA2 other_JJ polities_NN2 ._. 
To_TO know_VVI this_DD1 is_VBZ useful_JJ ,_, but_CCB to_TO identify_VVI those_DD2 media_NN is_VBZ to_TO identify_VVI the_AT means_NN for_IF transmitting_VVG the_AT values_NN2 and_CC beliefs_NN2 that_CST coalesce_VV0 to_TO form_VVI the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, and_CC not_XX to_TO identify_VVI the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
That_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 separate_JJ exercise_NN1 ,_, undertaken_VVN in_II the_AT next_MD chapter_NN1 ._. 
Having_VHG identified_VVN some_DD of_IO the_AT salient_JJ features_NN2 of_IO contemporary_JJ Britain_NP1 and_CC ,_, as_CSA a_AT1 prerequisite_NN1 ,_, the_AT process_NN1 of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 ,_, we_PPIS2 can_VM now_RT progress_VVI to_II the_AT more_RGR analytically_RR useful_JJ study_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
CONTINUITY_NN1 AND_CC CHANGE_VV0 The_AT British_JJ Political_JJ Culture_NN1 CONTINUITY_NN1 AND_CC CHANGE_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 observed_VVN ,_, are_VBR features_NN2 of_IO every_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO understand_VVI the_AT extent_NN1 and_CC nature_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 change_NN1 one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO generate_VVI some_DD analytically_RR useful_JJ framework_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ the_AT opening_NN1 chapter_NN1 did_VDD was_VBDZ to_TO provide_VVI largely_RR descriptive_JJ material_NN1 of_IO the_AT society_NN1 with_IW which_DDQ we_PPIS2 are_VBR concerned_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX generate_VVI a_AT1 framework_NN1 that_CST would_VM help_VVI us_PPIO2 understand_VVI the_AT nature_NN1 of_IO continuity_NN1 and_CC change_VV0 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 chapter_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO provide_VVI such_DA a_AT1 framework_NN1 ._. 
The_AT emphasis_NN1 of_IO the_AT chapter_NN1 will_VM be_VBI on_II the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA I_PPIS1 shall_VM seek_VVI to_TO show_VVI ,_, however_RR ,_, that_DD1 culture_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI divorced_VVN from_II the_AT constraints_NN2 of_IO history_NN1 and_CC of_IO physical_JJ and_CC spatial_JJ resources_NN2 ._. 
Each_DD1 has_VHZ had_VHN a_AT1 significant_JJ impact_NN1 on_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
The_AT impact_NN1 has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN in_II one_MC1 direction_NN1 only_RR :_: the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 has_VHZ served_VVN to_TO shape_VVI political_JJ perceptions_NN2 and_CC actions_NN2 ,_, and_CC hence_RR to_TO influence_VVI the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE political_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, those_DD2 actions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN constrained_VVN by_II the_AT experiences_NN2 of_IO history_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 also_RR been_VBN constrained_VVN by_II Britain_NP1 's_GE geographic_JJ location_NN1 and_CC limited_JJ resources_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO problems_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI borne_VVN in_II mind_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, there_EX are_VBR problems_NN2 inherent_JJ in_II trying_VVG to_TO give_VVI shape_NN1 to_II such_DA an_AT1 abstract_JJ concept_NN1 as_CSA political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ the_AT danger_NN1 of_IO tautology_NN1 and_CC of_IO failing_VVG to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II how_RRQ a_AT1 system_NN1 operates_VVZ and_CC the_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ people_NN believe_VV0 it_PPH1 should_VM operate_VVI ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ the_AT problem_NN1 also_RR of_IO attempting_VVG to_TO discern_VVI the_AT cause-and-effect_JJ relationships_NN2 among_II culture_NN1 ,_, history_NN1 ,_, and_CC resources_NN2 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 here_RL is_VBZ analogous_JJ to_II that_DD1 embodies_VVZ in_II the_AT familiar_JJ conundrum_NN1 &quot;_" Which_DDQ came_VVD first_MD ,_, the_AT chicken_NN1 or_CC the_AT egg_NN1 ?_? 
&quot;_" The_AT existence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 stable_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN ascribed_VVN by_II some_DD to_II the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
But_CCB what_DDQ has_VHZ enabled_VVN government_NN1 to_TO be_VBI effective_JJ ?_? 
Has_VHZ it_PPH1 been_VBN a_AT1 distinctive_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, citizens_NN2 being_VBG prepared_VVN to_TO acquiesce_VVI in_RP and_CC ,_, when_CS called_VVN on_RP ,_, to_TO support_VVI the_AT demands_NN2 made_VVN of_IO them_PPHO2 by_II government_NN1 ?_? 
If_CS so_RR ,_, what_DDQ explains_VVZ the_AT existence_NN1 of_IO such_DA a_AT1 political_JJ culture_NN1 ?_? 
Is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 partial_JJ explanation_NN1 the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 acute_JJ one_PN1 in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 ,_, given_VVN the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO any_DD clear_JJ point_NN1 of_IO departure_NN1 ._. 
Where_RRQ does_VDZ English_NN1 ,_, Scottish_JJ ,_, or_CC Welsh_JJ history_NN1 begin_VV0 ?_? 
At_II what_DDQ point_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 political_JJ culture_NN1 discernible_JJ ?_? 
The_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ largely_RR an_AT1 insuperable_JJ one_PN1 ,_, and_CC all_DB we_PPIS2 can_VM do_VDI at_II this_DD1 stage_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO bear_VVI it_PPH1 in_II mind_NN1 ._. 
Fortunately_RR ,_, it_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX present_VVI an_AT1 insurmountable_JJ obstacle_NN1 ;_; as_CSA I_PPIS1 shall_VM seek_VVI to_TO show_VVI ,_, the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO the_AT relationship_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO mutual_JJ reinforcement_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ ,_, then_RT ,_, is_VBZ the_AT British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ?_? 
How_RGQ important_JJ have_VH0 been_VBN the_AT constraints_NN2 of_IO history_NN1 and_CC of_IO resources_NN2 ?_? 
How_RRQ does_VDZ it_PPH1 compare_VVI with_IW other_JJ polities_NN2 ?_? 
And_CC is_VBZ it_PPH1 ,_, as_CSA some_DD writers_NN2 have_VH0 suggested_VVN ,_, in_II a_AT1 state_NN1 of_IO collapse_NN1 ?_? 
Political_JJ culture_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 vague_JJ abstract_JJ concept_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ been_VBN subject_II21 to_II22 various_JJ definitions_NN2 ._. 
In_II its_APPGE simplest_JJT form_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II denoting_VVG the_AT emotional_JJ and_CC attitudinal_JJ environment_NN1 within_II which_DDQ a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 operates_VVZ ._. 
Various_JJ political_JJ scientists_NN2 have_VH0 sought_VVN to_TO define_VVI and_CC identify_VVI different_JJ types_NN2 of_IO political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
Almond_NN1 and_CC Verba_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, identified_VVN three_MC ideal_JJ types_NN2 :_: participant_NN1 ,_, subject_NN1 ,_, and_CC parochial_JJ ._. 
Others_NN2 have_VH0 sought_VVN to_TO generate_VVI criteria_NN2 by_II which_DDQ to_TO assess_VVI the_AT distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
THE_AT POLITICAL_JJ CULTURE_NN1 In_II his_APPGE work_NN1 on_II political_JJ oppositions_NN2 in_II western_JJ democracies_NN2 ,_, Robert_NP1 Dahl_NP1 observed_VVD that_CST patterns_NN2 of_IO opposition_NN1 may_VM have_VHI something_PN1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW widely_RR shared_JJ cultural_JJ premises_NN2 ._. 
He_PPHS1 noted_VVD that_CST four_MC kinds_NN2 of_IO culturally_RR derived_VVN orientations_NN2 toward_II politics_NN1 seem_VV0 to_TO have_VHI a_AT1 bearing_NN1 on_II the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO opposition_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 four_MC orientations_NN2 can_VM usefully_RR be_VBI employed_VVN to_TO help_VVI understand_VVI and_CC explain_VVI attitudes_NN2 not_XX just_RR toward_II political_JJ opposition_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 but_CCB to_II the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 enable_VV0 one_PN1 to_TO draw_VVI out_RP the_AT distinctive_JJ features_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 culture_NN1 ,_, in_II a_AT1 more_RGR useful_JJ manner_NN1 than_CSN does_VDZ the_AT framework_NN1 provided_VVN by_II others_NN2 ,_, and_CC to_TO consider_VVI the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO both_RR history_NN1 and_CC resources_NN2 ._. 
Those_DD2 four_MC orientations_NN2 ,_, listed_VVD not_XX in_II the_AT order_NN1 provided_VVN by_II Dahl_NP1 but_CCB in_II the_AT order_NN1 I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 to_TO be_VBI most_RGT significant_JJ to_II an_AT1 understanding_NN1 to_II British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, are_VBR toward_II (_( 1_MC1 )_) problem-solving_NN1 ,_, (_( 2_MC )_) the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, (_( 3_MC )_) cooperation_NN1 and_CC individuality_NN1 ,_, and_CC (_( 4_MC )_) other_JJ people_NN ._. 
Orientation_NN1 toward_II Problem-Solving_NN1 Giovanni_NP1 Sartori_NP1 has_VHZ distinguished_VVN two_MC approaches_NN2 to_II problem-solving_NN1 :_: the_AT empirical_JJ and_CC the_AT rational_JJ ._. 
The_AT empirical_JJ approach_NN1 is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW what_DDQ is_VBZ and_CC what_DDQ can_VM be_VBI seen_VVN and_CC touched_VVN ,_, proceeding_VVG on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO testing_NN1 and_CC retesting_VVG and_CC largely_RR rejecting_VVG dogma_NN1 and_CC abstract_JJ or_CC coherent_JJ grand_JJ designs_NN2 for_IF change_NN1 ._. 
The_AT rationalist_NN1 approach_NN1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ concerned_JJ with_IW abstraction_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 facts_NN2 ,_, stressing_VVG the_AT need_NN1 for_IF deductive_JJ consistency_NN1 and_CC tending_VVG to_TO be_VBI dogmatic_JJ and_CC definitive_JJ ._. 
Dahl_NP1 states_VVZ :_: &quot;_" While_CS the_AT empirical_JJ approach_NN1 takes_VVZ the_AT attitude_NN1 that_CST if_CS a_AT1 program_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX work_VVI in_II practice_NN1 there_EX must_VM be_VBI something_PN1 wrong_JJ about_II the_AT theory_NN1 ,_, the_AT rationalist_NN1 will_VM retort_VVI that_DD1 what_DDQ is_VBZ true_JJ in_II theory_NN1 must_VM also_RR be_VBI true_JJ in_II practice_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT practice_NN1 ,_, not_XX the_AT theory_NN1 ,_, that_DD1 is_VBZ wrong_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" France_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN identified_VVN as_CSA employing_VVG a_AT1 rationalist_NN1 approach_NN1 ._. 
Germany_NP1 and_CC Italy_NP1 ,_, to_II some_DD extent_NN1 ,_, tend_VV0 also_RR to_TO find_VVI such_DA an_AT1 approach_NN1 useful_JJ ._. 
Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, are_VBR seen_VVN as_II the_AT exemplars_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 empirical_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ my_APPGE contention_NN1 that_CST this_DD1 approach_NN1 is_VBZ most_RRT marked_VVN in_II the_AT British_JJ case_NN1 and_CC that_CST it_PPH1 constitutes_VVZ the_AT most_RGT significant_JJ aspect_NN1 of_IO British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS more_RRR oriented_VVD toward_II an_AT1 empirical_JJ approach_NN1 ,_, the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 has_VHZ exhibited_VVN some_DD elements_NN2 of_IO the_AT rationalist_NN1 ._. 
While_CS tempered_VVN by_II experience_NN1 and_CC (_( according_II21 to_II22 Beard_NN1 )_) self-interest_NN1 ,_, the_AT framers_NN2 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 were_VBDR informed_VVN by_II Lockean_JJ values_NN2 and_CC sought_VVD to_TO impose_VVI a_AT1 political_JJ framework_NN1 in_II31 line_II32 with_II33 a_AT1 Lockean_JJ conception_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 values_NN2 and_CC that_DD1 conception_NN1 of_IO society_NN1 have_VH0 permeated_VVN the_AT American_JJ consciousness_NN1 ,_, so_RG much_DA1 so_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 have_VH0 largely_RR gone_VVN unstated_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 been_VBN so_RG pervasive_JJ and_CC so_RG self-evident_JJ that_CST there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN little_DA1 point_NN1 in_II articulating_VVG them_PPHO2 ._. 
Hence_RR ,_, the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 might_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II being_VBG oriented_VVN toward_II a_AT1 mix_NN1 of_IO the_AT empirical_JJ and_CC the_AT rationalist_NN1 ,_, albeit_CS with_IW the_AT former_DA being_NN1 clearly_RR the_AT more_RGR dominant_JJ of_IO the_AT two_MC ._. 
Britain_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ a_AT1 distinct_JJ orientation_NN1 toward_II the_AT empirical_JJ approach_NN1 ._. 
Even_RR the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, however_RGQV strong_JJ the_AT attachment_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 ,_, tends_VVZ to_TO be_VBI justified_VVN in_II pragmatic_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
Democracy_NN1 ,_, having_VHG been_VBN implemented_VVN in_II largely_RR pragmatic_JJ fashion_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN lauded_VVN on_II the_AT grounds_NN2 that_CST &quot;_" it_PPH1 works_VVZ ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT point_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN well_RR put_VVN by_II Vivien_NP1 Hart_NP1 in_II comparing_VVG American_JJ and_CC British_JJ approaches_NN2 :_: &quot;_" In_II America_NP1 ,_, &quot;_" she_PPHS1 wrote_VVD ,_, &quot;_" the_AT emphasis_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN on_II what_DDQ democracy_NN1 is_VBZ and_CC should_VM be_VBI ,_, while_CS Britain_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN characterised_VVN by_II a_AT1 more_RGR pragmatic_JJ and_CC less_RGR urgent_JJ emphasis_NN1 on_II what_DDQ democracy_NN1 is_VBZ and_CC can_VM be_VBI ._. 
&quot;_" Empiricism_NN1 seems_VVZ appropriate_JJ to_II the_AT English_JJ consciousness_NN1 ._. 
Instinct_NN1 ,_, trial_NN1 and_CC error_NN1 ,_, and_CC incremental_JJ change_NN1 are_VBR the_AT essence_NN1 of_IO the_AT English_JJ approach_NN1 to_II problem-solving_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" I_PPIS1 believe_VV0 in_II the_AT instinctive_JJ wisdom_NN1 of_IO our_APPGE well-tried_JJ democracy_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" declared_VVD Churchill_NP1 in_II 1945_MC shortly_RR before_II going_VVG down_RP to_II election_NN1 defeat_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA an_AT1 orientation_NN1 to_II problem-solving_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 distinctive_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO English_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 for_IF many_DA2 centuries_NNT2 ,_, discernible_JJ ,_, I_PPIS1 would_VM suggest_VVI ,_, since_CS at_RR21 least_RR22 the_AT thirteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 approach_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ informed_VVN political_JJ actions_NN2 and_CC hence_RR the_AT political_JJ history_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 has_VHZ in_II turn_NN1 been_VBN reinforced_VVN by_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT approach_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ always_RR been_VBN employed_VVN and_CC no_AT external_JJ constraints_NN2 have_VH0 managed_VVN to_TO force_VVI themselves_PPX2 on_II the_AT nation_NN1 to_TO generate_VVI conditions_NN2 in_II which_DDQ a_AT1 rationalist_NN1 approach_NN1 would_VM be_VBI possible_JJ ._. 
In_II the_AT wake_NN1 of_IO the_AT War_NN1 of_IO Independence_NN1 ,_, Americans_NN2 were_VBDR able_JK to_TO sit_VVI down_RP and_CC generate_VVI a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 from_II first_MD principles_NN2 ._. 
Invasions_NN2 by_II foreign_JJ powers_NN2 and_CC subsequent_JJ liberation_NN1 (_( or_CC absence_NN1 of_IO liberation_NN1 )_) have_VH0 put_VVN other_JJ states_NN2 in_II similar_JJ positions_NN2 ._. 
England_NP1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ never_RR been_VBN faced_VVN with_IW or_CC sought_VVD such_DA an_AT1 opportunity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT closest_JJT it_PPH1 came_VVD was_VBDZ during_II the_AT Protectorate_NN1 of_IO Oliver_NP1 Cromwell_NP1 in_II the_AT seventeenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
When_CS that_DD1 failed_VVD ,_, the_AT country_NN1 resorted_VVD as_RG far_RR as_CSA possible_JJ to_II the_AT conditions_NN2 prevailing_JJ prior_II21 to_II22 its_APPGE creation_NN1 ._. 
English_JJ history_NN1 is_VBZ scattered_VVN with_IW philosophers_NN2 generating_VVG theories_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 failed_VVN to_TO find_VVI congenial_JJ soil_NN1 in_II the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE consciousness_NN1 ._. 
Ideologies_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN either_RR discarded_VVN or_CC else_RR molded_VVD to_TO fit_VVI with_IW the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 ._. 
Prevailing_JJ theories_NN2 ,_, once_CS they_PPHS2 no_RR21 longer_RR22 seem_VV0 appropriate_JJ ,_, have_VH0 been_VBN dispensed_VVN with_IW ._. 
The_AT act_NN1 of_IO dispensing_VVG with_IW them_PPHO2 has_VHZ not_XX always_RR met_VVN with_IW common_JJ assent_NN1 nor_CC has_VHZ it_PPH1 always_RR been_VBN smooth_JJ the_AT English_JJ historical_JJ landscape_NN1 is_VBZ scattered_VVN with_IW periods_NN2 of_IO violence_NN1 and_CC upheaval_NN1 but_CCB once_RR the_AT dispensing_NN1 process_NN1 is_VBZ achieved_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ largely_RR been_VBN accepted_VVN ._. 
Hankering_VVG after_II the_AT old_JJ order_NN1 is_VBZ congenial_JJ to_II some_DD minds_NN2 ,_, but_CCB seeking_VVG to_TO revert_VVI by_II force_NN1 or_CC civil_JJ unrest_NN1 to_II the_AT status_NN121 quo_NN122 ante_FW is_VBZ not_XX ._. 
In_II the_AT English_JJ perception_NN1 ,_, empiricism_NN1 is_VBZ both_RR a_AT1 descriptive_JJ and_CC a_AT1 prescriptive_JJ term_NN1 ._. 
To_II the_AT Englishman_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ both_RR what_DDQ is_VBZ and_CC what_DDQ he_PPHS1 believes_VVZ always_RR has_VHZ been_VBN ._. 
Orientation_NN1 toward_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 may_VM be_VBI classified_VVN as_CSA allegiant_JJ when_CS attitudes_NN2 ,_, feelings_NN2 ,_, and_CC evaluations_NN2 are_VBR favorable_JJ to_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ;_; apathetic_JJ or_CC detached_VVN when_CS feelings_NN2 and_CC evaluations_NN2 are_VBR neutral_JJ ;_; and_CC alienated_VVN when_CS such_DA feelings_NN2 and_CC evaluations_NN2 are_VBR unfavorable_JJ ._. 
Italy_NP1 and_CC France_NP1 have_VH0 been_VBN cited_VVN as_CSA examples_NN2 of_IO political_JJ cultures_NN2 that_CST generate_VV0 alienation_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 large_JJ measure_NN1 of_IO apathy_NN1 ._. 
West_NP1 Germany_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN put_VVN forward_RL as_CSA having_VHG a_AT1 culture_NN1 that_CST generates_VVZ detachment_NN1 ._. 
In_II contrast_NN1 ,_, Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 are_VBR among_II those_DD2 countries_NN2 cited_VVN as_CSA exhibiting_VVG a_AT1 strong_JJ allegiant_JJ orientation_NN1 ._. 
Orientation_NN1 toward_II the_AT Political_JJ System_NN1 Almond_NN1 and_CC Verba_NP1 found_VVD that_DD1 evaluation_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ the_AT product_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 mix_NN1 of_IO participant_NN1 and_CC deferential_JJ orientations_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 participant_NN1 orientation_NN1 was_VBDZ developed_VVN in_II Britain_NP1 (_( citizens_NN2 being_VBG oriented_VVN to_II the_AT input_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT output_NN1 side_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, believing_VVG that_CST they_PPHS2 enjoyed_VVD access_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 )_) ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 was_VBDZ one_PN1 adapted_VVN to_II an_AT1 existing_JJ deference_NN1 to_II the_AT independent_JJ authority_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT participant_NN1 orientation_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, unlike_JJ that_CST in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, did_VDD not_XX displace_VVI the_AT deferential_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 remained_VVD important_JJ ._. 
The_AT participant_NN1 orientation_NN1 finds_VVZ expression_NN1 in_II citizens_NN2 '_GE beliefs_NN2 that_CST they_PPHS2 can_VM influence_VVI government_NN1 at_II both_DB2 the_AT national_JJ and_CC local_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS Almond_NP1 and_CC Verba_NP1 found_VVD few_DA2 people_NN in_II their_APPGE survey_NN1 who_PNQS actually_RR sought_VVN to_TO exert_VVI such_DA influence_NN1 ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 who_PNQS believed_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 could_VM exert_VVI influence_NN1 was_VBDZ significant_JJ ._. 
Of_IO British_JJ respondents_NN2 ,_, 57%_NNU said_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 could_VM influence_VVI national_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT figure_NN1 for_IF the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 was_VBDZ 67%_NNU ._. )_) 
Only_RR 19%_NNU of_IO those_DD2 questioned_VVN felt_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 had_VHD no_AT influence_NN1 at_II national_JJ and_CC local_JJ levels_NN2 ._. 
(_( The_AT figure_NN1 for_IF the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 was_VBDZ 15_MC per_NNU21 cent_NNU22 ._. )_) 
By_II contrast_NN1 ,_, of_IO Germans_NN2 ,_, Italians_NN2 ,_, and_CC Mexicans_NN2 interviewed_VVD ,_, more_RRR believed_VVD they_PPHS2 had_VHD no_AT influence_NN1 at_II national_JJ and_CC local_JJ level_NN1 than_CSN believed_VVN that_CST they_PPHS2 had_VHD ._. 
Only_RR 25%_NNU of_IO Italians_NN2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, believed_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 could_VM influence_VVI national_JJ and_CC local_JJ government_NN1 ,_, and_CC 47%_NNU said_VVD they_PPHS2 had_VHD no_AT such_DA influence_NN1 ._. 
Deference_NN1 to_II the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 has_VHZ found_VVN expression_NN1 in_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO ways_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN shown_VVN in_II a_AT1 voluntary_JJ compliance_NN1 with_IW basic_JJ political_JJ laws_NN2 ._. 
Criminal_JJ acts_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI antisocial_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 conscious_JJ acts_NN2 against_II &quot;_" the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" (_( Indeed_RR ,_, the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" the_AT state_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ one_PN1 that_CST is_VBZ not_XX well_RR entrenched_VVN in_II English_JJ consciousness_NN1 ._. )_) 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN little_DA1 overt_JJ opposition_NN1 to_II the_AT parliamentary_JJ form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
Some_DD may_VM want_VVI to_TO modify_VVI its_APPGE form_NN1 but_CCB do_VD0 not_XX challenge_VVI the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, nor_CC do_VD0 they_PPHS2 seek_VVI to_TO change_VVI its_APPGE form_NN1 through_II unlawful_JJ and_CC certainly_RR not_XX violent_JJ means_NN ._. 
When_CS government_NN1 authority_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN challenged_VVN citizens_NN2 have_VH0 expressed_VVN themselves_PPX2 in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 maintaining_VVG that_DD1 authority_NN1 ._. 
When_CS called_VVN on_RP by_II government_NN1 to_TO act_VVI in_II time_NNT1 of_IO war_NN1 ,_, citizens_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN prepared_VVN to_TO respond_VVI ._. 
Such_DA deference_NN1 has_VHZ often_RR been_VBN seen_VVN as_CSA allied_VVN with_IW a_AT1 social_JJ deference_NN1 ,_, citizens_NN2 according_II certain_JJ skills_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 to_II those_DD2 drawn_VVN from_II a_AT1 particular_JJ group_NN1 ._. 
Walter_NP1 Bageho_NP1 ,_, in_II his_APPGE classic_NN1 work_VV0 The_AT English_JJ Constitution_NN1 ,_, identified_VVD England_NP1 as_II a_AT1 &quot;_" deferential_JJ nation_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" one_PN1 that_CST had_VHD a_AT1 structure_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE own_DA ._. 
&quot;_" Certain_JJ persons_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" he_PPHS1 wrote_VVD ,_, &quot;_" are_VBR by_II common_JJ consent_NN1 agreed_VVD to_TO be_VBI wiser_JJR than_CSN others_NN2 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE opinion_NN1 is_VBZ ,_, by_II consent_NN1 ,_, to_TO rank_VVI for_IF much_DA1 more_DAR than_CSN its_APPGE numerical_JJ value_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Such_DA deference_NN1 ,_, though_CS possibly_RR weakened_VVN ,_, survived_VVD into_II the_AT era_NN1 of_IO mass_JJ suffrage_NN1 and_CC the_AT democratic_JJ ideal_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN seen_VVN as_II a_AT1 significant_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ Britain_NP1 and_CC has_VHZ been_VBN variously_RR offered_VVN as_II a_AT1 partial_JJ explanation_NN1 of_IO the_AT continuing_JJ success_NN1 of_IO the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE socially_RR atypical_JJ leadership_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA deference_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN contingent_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 certain_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN based_VVN on_II a_AT1 reciprocity_NN1 between_II governors_NN2 and_CC governed_VVD ._. 
The_AT populace_NN1 has_VHZ deferred_VVN to_II the_AT independent_JJ authority_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 and_CC to_II those_DD2 who_PNQS occupy_VV0 government_NN1 in_II31 return_II32 for_II33 the_AT satisfaction_NN1 of_IO expectations_NN2 ._. 
Those_DD2 expectations_NN2 have_VH0 covered_VVN the_AT substance_NN1 of_IO policies_NN2 (_( improving_JJ material_NN1 well-being_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 )_) as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
Almond_NN1 and_CC Verba_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, found_VVD that_CST an_AT1 overwhelming_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO Britons_NN2 expected_VVD equal_JJ treatment_NN1 from_II politicians_NN2 and_CC from_II bureaucrats_NN2 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, those_DD2 to_II whom_PNQO citizens_NN2 accord_VV0 deference_NN1 have_VH0 been_VBN characterized_VVN by_II having_VHG an_AT1 in-bred_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO duty_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 stress_NN1 on_II responsibilities_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 rights_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 significant_JJ and_CC long-standing_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC has_VHZ been_VBN well_RR imbued_VVN by_II a_AT1 large_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE political_JJ elite_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 paternalistic_JJ concern_NN1 for_IF the_AT well-being_NN1 of_IO the_AT nation_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO most_RRT if_CS not_XX all_DB monarchs_NN2 and_CC has_VHZ been_VBN associated_VVN with_IW a_AT1 particular_JJ and_CC often_RR predominant_JJ tradition_NN1 within_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
As_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN able_JK to_TO maintain_VVI the_AT capacity_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI the_AT demands_NN2 and_CC expectations_NN2 of_IO citizens_NN2 ,_, an_AT1 allegiant_JJ orientation_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN demonstrated_VVN by_II citizens_NN2 ._. 
The_AT longer_JJR the_AT system_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN able_JK to_TO do_VDI this_DD1 and_CC the_AT longer_JJR people_NN have_VH0 been_VBN socialized_VVN into_II accepting_VVG the_AT efficacy_NN1 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 ,_, the_AT stronger_JJR and_CC more_RRR enduring_VVG the_AT allegiance_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN ._. 
In_II Almond_NP1 and_CC verba_NN1 's_GE survey_NN1 ,_, more_DAR Britons_NN2 expressed_VVN pride_NN1 in_II their_APPGE governmental_JJ and_CC political_JJ institutions_NN2 than_CSN in_II any_DD other_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT nation_NN1 that_CST was_VBDZ mentioned_VVN ._. 
The_AT same_DA pride_NN1 was_VBDZ found_VVN in_II Americans_NN2 ,_, on_II a_AT1 larger_JJR scale_NN1 ._. 
(_( Of_IO Americans_NN2 ,_, 85%_NNU expressed_JJ pride_NN1 in_II their_APPGE institutions_NN2 ,_, compared_VVN with_IW 46%_NNU of_IO Britons_NN2 ._. )_) 
In_II stark_JJ contrast_NN1 ,_, only_RR 7%_NNU of_IO Germans_NN2 expressed_VVN pride_NN1 in_II their_APPGE governmental_JJ and_CC political_JJ institutions_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT figure_NN1 for_IF Italians_NN2 was_VBDZ 3%_NNU ._. 
Some_DD cultures_NN2 emphasize_VV0 the_AT values_NN2 of_IO cooperating_VVG with_IW others_NN2 ,_, conciliating_VVG opposing_JJ views_NN2 ,_, and_CC being_VBG prepared_VVN to_TO compromise_VVI and_CC submerge_VVI one_PN1 's_GE own_DA ideas_NN2 in_II a_AT1 broader_JJR and_CC more_RGR popularly_RR acceptable_JJ solution_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, stress_VV0 the_AT virtues_NN2 of_IO maintaining_VVG the_AT distinctiveness_NN1 ,_, ideas_NN2 ,_, and_CC integrity_NN1 of_IO the_AT individual_NN1 ,_, such_DA virtues_NN2 being_VBG considered_VVN superior_JJ to_II those_DD2 of_IO compromise_NN1 and_CC cooperation_NN1 ._. 
Orientation_NN1 toward_II Cooperation_NN1 and_CC Individuality_NN1 France_NP1 and_CC Italy_NP1 have_VH0 been_VBN cited_VVN as_CSA examples_NN2 of_IO countries_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT maintenance_NN1 of_IO group_NN1 and_CC individual_JJ integrity_NN1 is_VBZ stressed_VVN in_II both_DB2 the_AT general_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC in_II political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 are_VBR included_VVN among_II those_DD2 countries_NN2 in_II which_DDQ the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 emphasizes_VVZ the_AT virtues_NN2 of_IO compromise_NN1 and_CC conciliation_NN1 ,_, without_IW threatening_VVG personal_JJ integrity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Anglo-American_JJ perception_NN1 was_VBDZ well_RR expressed_VVN by_II Edmund_NP1 Burke_NP1 in_II 1775_MC ._. 
&quot;_" All_DB government_NN1 ,_, indeed_RR every_AT1 human_JJ benefit_NN1 and_CC enjoyment_NN1 ,_, every_AT1 virtue_NN1 ,_, and_CC every_AT1 prudent_JJ act_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" he_PPHS1 declared_VVD ,_, &quot;_" is_VBZ founded_VVN on_II compromise_NN1 and_CC barter_VV0 ._. 
&quot;_" In_II Britain_NP1 there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 almost_RR instinctive_JJ distaste_NN1 for_IF conflict_NN1 ,_, both_RR in_II personal_JJ relationships_NN2 and_CC in_II political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
The_AT formal_JJ political_JJ framework_NN1 facilitates_VVZ an_AT1 adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 among_II political_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT underlying_JJ reality_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 quest_NN1 for_IF compromise_NN1 ._. 
Parties_NN2 play_VV0 according_II21 to_II22 the_AT rules_NN2 of_IO the_AT constitutional_JJ game_NN1 ._. 
Similar_JJ observations_NN2 can_VM be_VBI made_VVN about_II groups_NN2 in_II industry_NN1 and_CC in_II society_NN1 generally_RR ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 penchant_NN1 ,_, almost_RR ,_, for_IF resolving_VVG disputes_NN2 by_II discussion_NN1 ,_, by_II sitting_VVG around_RP a_AT1 table_NN1 and_CC ironing_VVG out_RP one_PN1 's_GE differences_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 orientation_NN1 compatible_JJ with_IW the_AT others_NN2 already_RR identified_VVN and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ eminently_RR congenial_JJ to_II a_AT1 society_NN1 that_CST stresses_VVZ the_AT responsibilities_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT rights_NN2 of_IO the_AT individual_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 remains_VVZ an_AT1 orientation_NN1 that_CST Britons_NN2 not_XX only_RR find_VV0 congenial_JJ but_CCB also_RR take_VV0 as_II the_AT source_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 certain_JJ pride_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 belief_NN1 that_CST one_PN1 can_VM have_VHI faith_NN1 and_CC confidence_NN1 in_II others_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN put_VVN forward_RL as_II a_AT1 culturally_RR rooted_JJ phenomenon_NN1 ,_, with_IW potentially_RR important_JJ implications_NN2 for_IF political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Research_NN1 by_II Morris_NP1 Rosenberg_NP1 has_VHZ shown_VVN that_DD1 &quot;_" faith_NN1 in_II people_NN &quot;_" is_VBZ related_VVN to_II democratic_JJ and_CC internationalist_NN1 values_NN2 and_CC attitudes_NN2 ._. 
In_II their_APPGE study_NN1 ,_, Almond_NP1 and_CC Verba_NP1 found_VVD that_CST the_AT Americans_NN2 and_CC the_AT British_JJ &quot;_" tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI consistently_RR most_RGT positive_JJ about_II the_AT safety_NN1 and_CC responsiveness_NN1 of_IO the_AT human_JJ environment_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT Germans_NN2 and_CC the_AT Italians_NN2 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR found_VVN to_TO be_VBI more_RGR negative_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT Mexicans_NN2 inconsistent_JJ ._. 
Orientation_NN1 toward_II Other_JJ People_NN Trust_VV0 in_II one_PN1 's_GE fellow_JJ countrymen_NN2 remains_VVZ a_AT1 significant_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ British_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
A_ZZ1 Gallup_NP1 Poll_NN1 in_II 1980_MC found_VVD that_CST 85%_NNU of_IO respondents_NN2 considered_VVD other_JJ Britons_NN2 to_TO be_VBI very_JJ or_CC fairly_RR trustworthy_JJ ._. 
The_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 may_VM have_VHI helped_VVN to_TO consolidate_VVI such_DA a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO trust_NN1 ._. 
Britons_NN2 have_VH0 stood_VVN successfully_RR shoulder-to-shoulder_JJ in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO win_VVI battles_NN2 abroad_RL and_CC to_TO repel_VVI foreign_JJ invaders_NN2 from_II their_APPGE shores_NN2 ._. 
During_II the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 ,_, the_AT nation_NN1 did_VDD not_XX have_VHI to_TO contend_VVI with_IW a_AT1 significant_JJ fifth_MD column_NN1 or_CC with_IW the_AT equivalent_NN1 of_IO Vichy_NP1 collaborators_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ little_JJ or_CC nothing_PN1 in_II recent_JJ history_NN1 that_CST would_VM give_VVI Britons_NN2 cause_VV0 to_TO distrust_VVI their_APPGE compatriots_NN2 ._. 
Similarly_RR ,_, the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 ,_, island_NN1 isolation_NN1 ,_, and_CC shared_JJ values_NN2 may_VM serve_VVI to_TO explain_VVI differing_JJ levels_NN2 of_IO trust_NN1 that_CST Britons_NN2 have_VH0 in_II other_JJ people_NN ._. 
Britons_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO retain_VVI trust_NN1 in_II the_AT inhabitants_NN2 of_IO countries_NN2 in_II which_DDQ Britain_NP1 has_VHZ had_VHN or_CC retains_VVZ colonial_JJ interests_NN2 ;_; countries_NN2 that_CST share_VV0 a_AT1 common_JJ language_NN1 ,_, values_NN2 ,_, and_CC (_( in_II some_DD cases_NN2 )_) ancestry_NN1 ;_; and_CC countries_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 stood_VVN together_RL in_II times_NNT2 of_IO crisis_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR strong_JJ emotional_JJ ties_NN2 to_II old_JJ Commonwealth_NN1 countries_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 New_JJ Zealand_NP1 ,_, Canada_NP1 ,_, and_CC Australia_NP1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 strong_JJ sense_NN1 of_IO closeness_NN1 to_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
Of_IO respondents_NN2 in_II the_AT Gallup_NP1 Poll_NN1 in_II 1980_MC ,_, 70%_NNU regarded_VVN Americans_NN2 as_CSA very_JJ or_CC fairly_RR trustworthy_JJ ._. 
(_( Only_RR the_AT Swiss_JJ and_CC the_AT Dutch_NN1 received_VVD marginally_RR higher_JJR ratings_NN2 ._. )_) 
Another_DD1 poll_NN1 a_AT1 year_NNT1 later_RRR asked_VVD respondents_NN2 the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 thought_VVD they_PPHS2 could_VM trust_VVI certain_JJ countries_NN2 as_CSA allies_NN2 in_II the_AT event_NN1 of_IO war_NN1 ._. 
The_AT proportion_NN1 responding_VVG that_CST they_PPHS2 thought_VVD they_PPHS2 could_VM trust_VVI the_AT United_JJ Sates_NN2 &quot;_" a_RR31 great_RR32 deal_RR33 &quot;_" was_VBDZ 62%_NNU (_( up_RP from_II 45%_NNU in_II 1975_MC )_) ,_, a_AT1 figure_NN1 not_XX matched_VVN by_II any_DD other_JJ country_NN1 :_: the_AT closest_RRT was_VBDZ Norway_NP1 ,_, which_DDQ 37%_NNU thought_VVD they_PPHS2 could_VM trust_VVI to_II the_AT same_DA extent_NN1 ._. 
The_AT two_MC polls_NN2 revealed_VVD lower_JJR levels_NN2 of_IO trust_NN1 in_II those_DD2 countries_NN2 and_CC people_NN that_CST historically_RR have_VH0 been_VBN Britain_NP1 's_GE enemies_NN2 ._. 
To_II the_AT island_NN1 inhabitants_NN2 of_IO Britain_NP1 ,_, such_DA peoples_NN2 remain_VV0 distant_JJ (_( though_CS the_AT English_NP1 Channel_NN1 constitutes_VVZ now_RT more_RRR a_AT1 psychological_JJ than_CSN a_AT1 physical_JJ barrier_NN1 )_) ,_, with_IW alien_JJ cultures_NN2 ,_, different_JJ interests_NN2 ,_, and_CC different_JJ thought_NN1 processes_NN2 ._. 
Englishmen_NN2 and_CC Scotsmen_NP1 ,_, as_CSA Anthony_NP1 King_NP1 observed_VVD ,_, have_VH0 tended_VVN not_XX to_TO think_VVI like_II Europeans_NN2 nor_CC to_TO think_VVI of_IO themselves_PPX2 as_CSA Europeans_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1980_MC Gallup_NP1 Poll_NN1 ,_, only_RR 32%_NNU of_IO the_AT Britons_NN2 questioned_VVD regarded_VVN the_AT French_NN1 as_CSA very_JJ or_CC fairly_RR trustworthy_JJ ._. 
The_AT Russians_NN2 scored_VVD 18%_NNU ._. 
(_( The_AT West_NP1 Germans_NN2 ,_, perhaps_RR surprisingly_RR ,_, scored_VVD 60%_NNU ._. )_) 
Only_RR 6%_NNU of_IO those_DD2 questioned_VVN would_VM trust_VVI the_AT French_NN1 a_RR31 great_RR32 deal_RR33 as_CSA allies_NN2 in_II time_NNT1 of_IO war_NN1 ,_, 4%_NNU would_VM trust_VVI the_AT Spanish_JJ ,_, 4%_NNU the_AT Italians_NN2 ,_, and_CC only_RR 3%_NNU the_AT Turks_NN2 ._. 
Again_RT ,_, the_AT Germans_NN2 did_VDD better_RRR ,_, 22%_NNU being_VBG prepared_VVN to_TO trust_VVI them_PPHO2 a_RR31 great_RR32 deal_RR33 ._. 
Finally_RR ,_, 47%_NNU said_VVD they_PPHS2 would_VM trust_VVI the_AT Italians_NN2 &quot;_" not_XX at_RR21 all_RR22 ,_, &quot;_" and_CC 45%_NNU gave_VVD a_AT1 similar_JJ response_NN1 for_IF the_AT French_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II British_JJ membership_NN1 of_IO the_AT European_JJ Communities_NN2 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ sense_NN1 in_II which_DDQ Britain_NP1 and_CC certainly_RR the_AT British_JJ still_RR look_VV0 westward_RL across_II the_AT Atlantic_NP1 rather_II21 than_II22 eastward_RL over_II the_AT English_JJ channel_NN1 ._. 
And_CC despite_II the_AT travails_NN2 of_IO recent_JJ times_NNT2 ,_, trust_VV0 in_II one_PN1 's_GE fellow_JJ countrymen_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 discriminating_JJ ,_, possibly_RR confident_JJ ,_, perception_NN1 of_IO other_JJ people_NN remain_VV0 significant_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 may_VM then_RT be_VBI characterized_VVN ,_, in_II broad_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, as_CSA having_VHG the_AT four_MC orientations_NN2 identified_VVN :_: empirical_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 problem-solving_NN1 and_CC change_NN1 ,_, allegiant_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, cooperative_JJ in_II making_VVG decisions_NN2 ,_, and_CC trusting_VVG with_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 fellow_JJ countrymen_NN2 and_CC allies_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ important_JJ to_TO stress_VVI ,_, are_VBR generalizations_NN2 there_EX are_VBR always_RR individuals_NN2 or_CC subcultures_VVZ that_CST may_VM not_XX have_VHI such_DA orientations_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ is_VBZ that_CST they_PPHS2 are_VBR and_CC remain_VV0 the_AT orientations_NN2 of_IO most_DAT Britons_NN2 ,_, both_RR at_II the_AT mass_NN1 and_CC the_AT elite_NN1 level_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 DECLINING_JJ CULTURE_NN1 ?_? 
The_AT strength_NN1 of_IO the_AT culture_NN1 may_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO lie_VVI in_II the_AT convergence_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 orientations_NN2 that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR compatible_JJ with_IW and_CC reinforce_VV0 one_PPX121 another_PPX122 ,_, and_CC similarly_RR are_VBR compatible_JJ with_IW and_CC are_VBR reinforced_VVN by_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 ._. 
The_AT stress_NN1 on_II cooperation_NN1 and_CC compromise_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 emphasis_NN1 compatible_JJ with_IW an_AT1 empirical_JJ approach_NN1 to_TO change_VVI ,_, has_VHZ facilitated_VVN the_AT integration_NN1 of_IO groups_NN2 and_CC individuals_NN2 into_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA integration_NN1 may_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_CSA reinforcing_VVG an_AT1 allegiant_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 neutral_JJ or_CC alienated_JJ orientation_NN1 to_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
History_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 mentioned_VVN ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN kind_NN1 :_: the_AT country_NN1 has_VHZ staved_VVN off_II invasion_NN1 by_II its_APPGE enemies_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT resources_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN available_JJ for_IF government_NN1 to_TO make_VVI and_CC meet_VVI commitments_NN2 in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 changing_JJ demands_NN2 and_CC expectations_NN2 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN possible_JJ to_TO interpret_VVI the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 as_CSA justifying_VVG or_CC reinforcing_VVG an_AT1 attachment_NN1 to_II empirical_JJ problem-solving_NN1 and_CC to_II the_AT virtues_NN2 of_IO cooperation_NN1 and_CC trust_NN1 ._. 
The_AT interplay_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 variables_NN2 generated_VVD what_DDQ Almond_NP1 and_CC Verba_NP1 characterized_VVD as_CSA &quot;_" the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" &quot;_" a_AT1 pluralistic_JJ culture_NN1 based_VVN on_II communication_NN1 and_CC persuasion_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 culture_NN1 of_IO consensus_NN1 and_CC diversity_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 culture_NN1 that_CST permitted_VVD change_NN1 but_CCB moderated_VVD it_PPH1 ._. 
&quot;_" What_DDQ of_IO the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 today_RT ?_? 
My_APPGE argument_NN1 is_VBZ simply_RR stated_VVN :_: Although_CS subject_II21 to_II22 modification_NN1 ,_, the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 remains_VVZ ._. 
What_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO radical_NN1 ,_, almost_RR revolutionary_JJ ,_, change_VV0 over_RP the_AT past_JJ decade_NNT1 or_CC so_RR has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 but_CCB the_AT perceptions_NN2 of_IO that_DD1 culture_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ not_XX changed_VVN as_RG much_DA1 as_CSA observers_NN2 think_VV0 it_PPH1 has_VHZ ._. 
I_PPIS1 do_VD0 not_XX argue_VVI that_CST the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 remains_VVZ unchanged_JJ ._. 
The_AT culture_NN1 not_XX only_RR allows_VVZ for_IF change_NN1 ,_, usually_RR incremental_JJ but_CCB occasionally_RR radical_JJ ,_, but_CCB itself_PPX1 can_VM and_CC does_VDZ change_VVI ._. 
In_II good_JJ British_JJ fashion_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, that_DD1 change_NN1 has_VHZ tended_VVN to_TO be_VBI piecemeal_RR rather_II21 than_II22 comprehensive_JJ ._. 
Some_DD values_NN2 ,_, attitudes_NN2 and_CC emotions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN subject_II21 to_II22 modification_NN1 over_II time_NNT1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT essential_JJ orientations_NN2 outlined_VVN above_RL have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN discarded_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 remain_VV0 the_AT orientations_NN2 that_CST converge_VV0 to_TO form_VVI the_AT predominant_JJ element_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ has_VHZ changed_VVN ,_, and_CC changed_VVN radically_RR over_II the_AT period_NN1 from_II the_AT late_JJ 1960s_MC2 to_II the_AT early_JJ 1980s_MC2 ,_, has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT perception_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 culture_NN1 ._. 
Analyses_NN2 of_IO the_AT British_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 have_VH0 swung_VVN ,_, pendulum_NN1 fashion_NN1 ,_, from_II one_MC1 extreme_JJ to_II the_AT other_JJ ._. 
At_II times_NNT2 of_IO apparent_JJ stability_NN1 ,_, contentment_NN1 ,_, and_CC political_JJ success_NN1 ,_, there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO see_VVI the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 in_II idealized_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, to_TO hold_VVI it_PPH1 aloft_RL and_CC laud_VVI it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 culture_NN1 to_TO be_VBI admired_VVN and_CC possibly_RR even_RR envied_VVD ._. 
Although_CS Almond_NP1 and_CC Verba_NP1 drew_VVD attention_NN1 to_II some_DD of_IO the_AT inconsistencies_NN2 and_CC problems_NN2 inherent_JJ in_II the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ nonetheless_RR difficult_JJ not_XX to_TO ascribe_VVI positive_JJ connotations_NN2 to_II that_DD1 culture_NN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO problems_NN2 inherent_JJ in_II the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 disposition_NN1 to_II incremental_JJ change_NN1 can_VM deflect_VVI one_PN1 from_II considering_VVG or_CC even_RR comprehending_VVG wider_JJR and_CC more_RGR fundamental_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT combination_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 and_CC historical_JJ continuity_NN1 has_VHZ produced_VVN a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ complex_JJ and_CC disparate_JJ ._. 
While_CS the_AT American_JJ federal_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN likened_VVN to_II a_AT1 marble_NN1 cake_NN1 ,_, the_AT British_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 can_VM be_VBI likened_VVN to_II a_AT1 patchwork_NN1 quilt_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 may_VM look_VVI to_II some_DD extent_NN1 like_II the_AT original_JJ ,_, it_PPH1 may_VM even_RR retain_VVI traces_NN2 of_IO the_AT original_JJ ,_, but_CCB the_AT many_DA2 pieces_NN2 that_CST make_VV0 the_AT whole_NN1 were_VBDR added_VVN at_II different_JJ times_NNT2 and_CC have_VH0 been_VBN the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO change_NN1 and_CC much_RR repair_VV0 work_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 includes_VVZ structures_NN2 that_CST (_( according_II21 to_II22 some_DD observers_NN2 )_) have_VH0 facilitated_VVN policy_NN1 discontinuity_NN1 a_AT1 discontinuity_NN1 not_XX incompatible_JJ with_IW an_AT1 empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 to_TO change_VVI yet_RR comprises_VVZ such_DA an_AT1 interdependent_JJ complex_NN1 of_IO political_JJ bodies_NN2 that_CST it_PPH1 has_VHZ become_VVN increasingly_RR difficult_JJ for_IF government_NN1 to_TO govern_VVI and_CC to_TO initiate_VVI radical_JJ and_CC comprehensive_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA difficulty_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN exacerbated_VVN by_II the_AT desire_NN1 to_TO resolve_VVI problems_NN2 by_II compromise_NN1 ._. 
Problems_NN2 that_CST can_VM not_XX be_VBI resolved_VVN by_II reasoned_JJ debate_NN1 have_VH0 tended_VVN to_TO be_VBI ignored_VVN in_II the_AT hope_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 will_VM go_VVI away_RL ._. 
Such_DA inherent_JJ problems_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI discounted_VVN ,_, ignored_VVD ,_, or_CC even_RR interpreted_VVN in_II a_AT1 favorable_JJ light_NN1 at_II times_NNT2 when_RRQ the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 appears_VVZ to_TO be_VBI successfully_RR meeting_VVG the_AT demands_NN2 and_CC expectations_NN2 of_IO the_AT populace_NN1 ._. 
When_CS the_AT system_NN1 appears_VVZ to_TO be_VBI malfunctional_JJ ,_, usually_RR at_II times_NNT2 of_IO economic_JJ difficulty_NN1 for_IF the_AT country_NN1 ,_, some_DD commentators_NN2 identify_VV0 such_DA inherent_JJ problems_NN2 as_CSA providing_VVG at_RR21 least_RR22 a_AT1 partial_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF the_AT system_NN1 's_GE poor_JJ showing_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT latter_DA half_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, policy_NN1 discontinuity_NN1 arising_VVG from_II an_AT1 electoral_JJ and_CC political_JJ system_NN1 that_CST encouraged_VVD an_AT1 &quot;_" adversary_NN1 style_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO politics_NN1 was_VBDZ offered_VVN as_II a_AT1 partial_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF Britain_NP1 's_GE poor_JJ economic_JJ performance_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ commentators_NN2 have_VH0 sought_VVN to_TO identify_VVI the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE problems_NN2 not_XX in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO some_DD aspects_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 but_CCB as_CSA agents_NN2 generating_VVG and_CC reflecting_VVG a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT culture_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC early_JJ 1980s_MC2 ,_, a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO observers_NN2 began_VVD to_TO chart_VVI a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1982_MC ,_, on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO some_DD survey_NN1 evidence_NN1 ,_, Samuel_NP1 Beer_NN1 concluded_VVD that_CST &quot;_" it_PPH1 is_VBZ no_AT exaggeration_NN1 to_TO speak_VVI of_IO the_AT decline_NN1 in_II the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 as_II a_AT1 &quot;_" collapse_NN1 &quot;_" &quot;_" ._. 
He_PPHS1 argued_VVD that_CST as_RG old_JJ institutions_NN2 failed_VVD to_TO meet_VVI new_JJ expectations_NN2 ,_, so_RR legitimacy_NN1 in_II government_NN1 would_VM falter_VVI and_CC trust_VVI in_II its_APPGE equity_NN1 and_CC effectiveness_NN1 would_VM decline_VVI ._. 
He_PPHS1 hypothesized_VVD and_CC sought_VVD to_TO show_VVI that_CST the_AT consequences_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 included_VVD a_AT1 greater_JJR self-assertion_NN1 by_II participants_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 decline_NN1 of_IO leadership_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 weakening_JJ of_IO party_NN1 government_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 loosening_NN1 of_IO the_AT nexus_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" In_II an_AT1 ironic_JJ sense_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" Beer_NN1 declared_VVD ,_, &quot;_" Britain_NP1 is_VBZ maintaining_VVG its_APPGE leadership_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA it_PPH1 once_RR showed_VVD the_AT way_NN1 toward_II democratic_JJ success_NN1 ,_, today_RT it_PPH1 blazes_VVZ the_AT trail_NN1 toward_II democratic_JJ failure_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" While_CS Beer_NN1 's_GE hypothesis_NN1 is_VBZ plausible_JJ as_II21 to_II22 the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO institutions_NN2 that_CST fail_VV0 to_TO meet_VVI new_JJ expectations_NN2 on_II legitimacy_NN1 in_II government_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ arguable_JJ as_II21 to_II22 the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ such_DA a_AT1 failure_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI expectations_NN2 has_VHZ taken_VVN place_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ a_AT1 point_NN1 to_II which_DDQ I_PPIS1 shall_VM return_VVI in_II the_AT concluding_JJ chapter_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS government_NN1 capacity_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI expectations_NN2 has_VHZ declined_VVN ,_, its_APPGE capacity_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI expectations_NN2 in_II the_AT past_NN1 built_VVD up_RP a_AT1 body_NN1 of_IO diffuse_JJ support_NN1 ,_, support_VV0 that_CST now_RT exists_VVZ independently_RR of_IO particular_JJ failures_NN2 to_TO meet_VVI demands_NN2 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, there_EX is_VBZ evidence_NN1 that_CST the_AT expectations_NN2 themselves_PPX2 may_VM be_VBI changing_VVG ,_, converging_VVG more_RRR with_IW the_AT capacity_NN1 of_IO the_AT system_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
Certainly_RR ,_, it_PPH1 will_VM be_VBI my_APPGE case_NN1 that_CST the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 has_VHZ neither_RR declined_VVN nor_CC been_VBN threatened_VVN to_II the_AT extent_NN1 suggested_VVN by_II Beer_NN1 and_CC other_JJ Jeremiahs_NP2 ._. 
Certain_JJ institutions_NN2 may_VM be_VBI under_II threat_NN1 (_( as_CSA subsequent_JJ chapters_NN2 will_VM show_VVI )_) but_CCB not_XX in_II a_AT1 manner_NN1 inconsistent_JJ with_IW the_AT existing_JJ political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 may_VM be_VBI weakened_VVN but_CCB it_PPH1 has_VHZ not_XX collapsed_VVN ._. 
Its_APPGE position_NN1 is_VBZ similar_JJ to_II that_DD1 of_IO Mark_NP1 Twain_NN1 :_: reports_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE death_NN1 would_VM be_VBI greatly_RR exaggerated_VVN ._. 
As_CSA I_PPIS1 shall_VM seek_VVI to_TO show_VVI ,_, the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 remains_VVZ predominantly_RR an_AT1 allegiant_JJ one_PN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT important_JJ question_NN1 to_TO be_VBI addressed_VVN is_VBZ not_XX &quot;_" why_RRQ has_VHZ there_EX been_VBN a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ?_? &quot;_" but_CCB rather_RR &quot;_" why_RRQ has_VHZ that_DD1 decline_NN1 not_XX been_VBN greater_JJR ?_? 
&quot;_" PAST_RL AND_CC PRESENT_JJ Historical_JJ Perspective_NN1 and_CC Contemporary_JJ Problems_NN2 A_ZZ1 NUMBER_NN1 OF_IO INTRODUCTION_NN1 TEXTS_NN2 on_II British_JJ politics_NN1 do_VD0 not_XX have_VHI chapters_NN2 devoted_VVN specifically_RR to_II political_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
The_AT omission_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 surprising_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
When_CS the_AT proposal_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 book_NN1 was_VBDZ under_II consideration_NN1 by_II the_AT publishers_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO American_JJ professors_NN2 were_VBDR asked_VVN for_IF their_APPGE comments_NN2 ._. 
One_PN1 responded_VVN with_IW this_DD1 advice_NN1 :_: &quot;_" Make_VV0 sure_JJ you_PPY incorporate_VV0 as_RG much_DA1 historical_JJ detail_NN1 as_CSA possible_JJ ._. 
American_JJ students_NN2 do_VD0 n't_XX know_VVI much_RR about_II British_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" It_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 shrewd_JJ response_NN1 ._. 
The_AT need_NN1 for_IF such_DA detail_NN1 ,_, however_RR ,_, is_VBZ not_XX confined_VVN to_II Americans_NN2 interested_JJ in_II the_AT subject_NN1 ;_; it_PPH1 encompasses_VVZ all_DB those_DD2 who_PNQS seek_VV0 to_TO make_VVI some_DD sense_NN1 of_IO the_AT institutions_NN2 and_CC complex_JJ relationships_NN2 that_CST form_VV0 the_AT British_JJ polity_NN1 in_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN no_AT point_NN1 in_II British_JJ history_NN1 at_II which_DDQ the_AT prevailing_JJ method_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN completely_RR swept_VVN away_RL ,_, allowing_VVG those_DD2 in_II power_NN1 to_TO sit_VVI down_RP and_CC create_VVI from_II first_MD principles_NN2 a_AT1 new_JJ and_CC clearly_RR delineated_JJ form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT country_NN1 has_VHZ witnessed_VVN continuous_JJ and_CC sometimes_RT dramatic_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT past_JJ 300_MC years_NNT2 alone_JJ ,_, the_AT nation_NN1 has_VHZ experienced_VVN industrialization_NN1 ,_, the_AT advent_NN1 of_IO democracy_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT introduction_NN1 and_CC growth_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 yet_RR the_AT changes_NN2 have_VH0 never_RR been_VBN such_II21 as_II22 to_TO be_VBI described_VVN as_CSA revolutionary_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 been_VBN built_VVN upon_II and_CC have_VH0 adapted_VVN that_DD1 which_DDQ already_RR existed_VVN ._. 
The_AT body_NN1 politic_NN1 may_VM have_VHI undergone_VVN radical_JJ surgery_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 may_VM have_VHI aged_VVN considerably_RR ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 has_VHZ continued_VVN to_TO endure_VVI ._. 
What_DDQ then_RT ,_, are_VBR the_AT significant_JJ features_NN2 of_IO British_JJ history_NN1 that_CST help_VV0 us_PPIO2 understand_VVI the_AT contemporary_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 and_CC the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
Limitations_NN2 of_IO space_NN1 preclude_VV0 a_AT1 lengthy_JJ dissertation_NN1 on_II what_DDQ is_VBZ a_AT1 vast_JJ subject_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 vastness_NN1 is_VBZ apparent_JJ when_CS put_VVN in_II comparative_JJ perspective_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Magna_NN121 Carta_NN122 ,_, for_REX21 instance_REX22 ,_, was_VBDZ signed_VVN more_DAR than_CSN two_MC centuries_NNT2 before_II Christopher_NP1 Columbus_NP1 set_VVD sail_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 Parliament_NN1 was_VBDZ summoned_VVN more_DAR than_CSN 500_MC years_NNT2 before_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Congress_NN1 first_MD assembled_VVD ._. 
And_CC an_AT1 American_JJ president_NN1 ,_, unlike_II a_AT1 British_JJ monarch_NN1 ,_, can_VM not_XX trace_VVI his_APPGE presidential_JJ forebears_NN2 back_RP more_DAR than_CSN 1,000_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ to_TO provide_VVI a_AT1 brief_JJ but_CCB structured_JJ sketch_NN1 that_CST furthers_VVZ our_APPGE understanding_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ British_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 can_VM be_VBI done_VDN under_RG two_MC headings_NN2 :_: one_PN1 is_VBZ the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT other_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC the_AT managed_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT structure_NN1 and_CC relationships_NN2 of_IO the_AT contemporary_JJ organs_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 can_VM be_VBI understood_VVN only_RR in_II historical_JJ context_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 study_NN1 of_IO the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 highlights_VVZ the_AT increased_JJ demands_NN2 and_CC responsibilities_NN2 borne_VVN by_II government_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 studies_NN2 provide_VV0 a_AT1 necessary_JJ background_NN1 to_II understanding_VVG some_DD of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 now_RT faced_VVN by_II government_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 serve_VV0 also_RR to_TO highlight_VVI certain_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT essential_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 under_II a_AT1 limited_JJ ,_, or_CC symbolic_JJ ,_, monarchy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT formal_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 type_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 will_VM be_VBI more_RGR fully_RR outlined_VVN in_II the_AT next_MD chapter_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT moment_NN1 ,_, what_DDQ concerns_VVZ us_PPIO2 is_VBZ that_CST this_DD1 government_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT product_NN1 of_IO change_NN1 extending_VVG over_RP several_DA2 centuries_NNT2 ,_, coming_VVG to_II fruition_NN1 only_RR in_II the_AT past_JJ century_NNT1 ._. 
Its_APPGE development_NN1 has_VHZ sometimes_RT been_VBN characterized_VVN as_CSA being_VBG evolutionary_JJ ,_, but_CCB in_II practice_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT outgrowth_NN1 of_IO piecemeal_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
HISTORICAL_JJ PERSPECTIVE_NN1 The_AT Emergence_NN1 of_IO Parliamentary_JJ Government_NN1 Let_VV0 us_PPIO2 begin_VVI in_II the_AT thirteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Traditionally_RR ,_, the_AT sovereign_JJ power_NN1 in_II England_NP1 resided_VVD in_II the_AT monarch_NN1 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, the_AT king_NN1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO consult_VVI with_IW his_APPGE tenants-in-chief_NN2 (_( the_AT earls_NN2 ,_, barons_NN2 ,_, and_CC leading_JJ churchmen_NN2 of_IO the_AT kingdom_NN1 )_) in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO discover_VVI and_CC declare_VVI the_AT law_NN1 and_CC to_TO have_VHI their_APPGE counsel_NN1 before_II any_DD levies_NN2 of_IO extraordinary_JJ taxation_NN1 were_VBDR made_VVN ._. 
This_DD1 expectation_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO find_VVI documented_JJ expression_NN1 in_II the_AT Magna_NN121 Carta_NN122 of_IO 1215_MC ,_, by_II which_DDQ the_AT King_NN1 recognized_VVD it_PPH1 as_II a_AT1 right_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE subjects_NN2 &quot;_" to_TO have_VHI the_AT Common_JJ Council_NN1 of_IO the_AT Kingdom_NN1 &quot;_" for_IF the_AT assessment_NN1 of_IO extraordinary_JJ aids_NN2 that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, taxation_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA consultation_NN1 was_VBDZ undertaken_VVN through_II a_AT1 Great_JJ Council_NN1 ,_, from_II which_DDQ evolved_VVD what_DDQ was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI recognized_VVN as_II a_AT1 parlement_NN1 or_CC Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Great_JJ Council_NN1 itself_PPX1 was_VBDZ essentially_RR the_AT precursor_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP evolved_JJ from_II the_AT summoning_VVG to_II council_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT latter_DA half_NN1 of_IO the_AT thirteenth_MD century_NNT1 on_II a_AT1 somewhat_RR sporadic_JJ basis_NN1 ,_, of_IO knights_NN2 and_CC burgesses_NN2 as_CSA representatives_NN2 of_IO the_AT counties_NN2 and_CC towns_NN2 ._. 
At_II various_JJ times_NNT2 in_II the_AT fourteenth_MD century_NNT1 the_AT Commons_NP deliberated_JJ separately_RR from_II the_AT Lords_NP ,_, and_CC there_EX developed_VVD a_AT1 formal_JJ separation_NN1 of_IO the_AT two_MC bodies_NN2 ._. 
During_II the_AT period_NN1 of_IO the_AT Tudor_NP1 monarchs_NN2 in_II the_AT sixteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, Parliament_NN1 acquired_VVD enhanced_JJ status_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ generally_RR supportive_JJ of_IO the_AT monarch_NN1 but_CCB became_VVD more_RGR powerful_JJ because_II21 of_II22 the_AT dependence_NN1 upon_II it_PPH1 for_IF that_DD1 support_NN1 ,_, especially_RR during_II the_AT reign_NN1 of_IO Elizabeth_NP1 I._MC1 The_AT relationship_NN1 between_II Crown_NN1 and_CC Parliament_NN1 under_II the_AT subsequent_JJ Stuart_NP1 dynasty_NN1 was_VBDZ one_MC1 of_IO conflict_NN1 ._. 
The_AT early_JJ Stuart_NP1 kings_NN2 James_NP1 I_MC1 and_CC Charles_NP1 I_MC1 sought_VVD to_TO assert_VVI the_AT doctrine_NN1 of_IO the_AT divine_JJ right_NN1 of_IO kings_NN2 and_CC to_TO deny_VVI many_DA2 of_IO the_AT privileges_NN2 acquired_VVN or_CC asserted_VVD by_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 conflict_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO lead_VVI to_II the_AT civil_JJ war_NN1 and_CC the_AT beheading_NN1 of_IO Charles_NP1 I_MC1 in_II 1642_MC ._. 
With_IW the_AT abolition_NN1 of_IO the_AT monarchy_NN1 came_VVD a_AT1 brief_JJ period_NN1 of_IO rule_NN1 by_II a_AT1 Council_NN1 of_IO State_NN1 elected_VVN by_II what_DDQ was_VBDZ termed_VVN the_AT Rump_NN1 Parliament_NN1 ._. 
(_( Some_DD attempts_NN2 were_VBDR actually_RR made_VVN to_TO formulate_VVI a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO written_JJ constitution_NN1 ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 came_VVD to_II nothing_PN1 ._. )_) 
Rule_NN1 by_II the_AT Council_NN1 of_IO State_NN1 was_VBDZ succeeded_VVN by_II Oliver_NP1 Cromwell_NP1 's_GE unsuccessful_JJ military_JJ dictatorship_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II 1660_MC Charles_NP1 '_GE son_NN1 returned_VVD to_TO assume_VVI the_AT throne_NN1 as_CSA Charles_NP1 II_MC ._. 
The_AT period_NN1 between_II 1642_MC and_CC 1660_MC proved_VVD an_AT1 aberration_NN1 in_II British_JJ history_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Restoration_NN1 witnessed_VVD an_AT1 attempt_NN1 to_TO return_VVI ,_, unconditionally_RR ,_, to_II the_AT country_NN1 's_GE position_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ at_II the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO 1642_MC ._. 
Through_II this_DD1 attempt_NN1 the_AT Restoration_NN1 lent_VVD itself_PPX1 to_II a_AT1 repetition_NN1 of_IO the_AT earlier_JJR struggle_NN1 between_II King_NN1 and_CC Commons_NP ._. 
Relations_NN2 between_II the_AT two_MC gradually_RR deteriorated_VVD during_II the_AT reign_NN1 of_IO Charles_NP1 II_MC and_CC became_VVD severe_JJ in_II the_AT reign_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE successor_NN1 ,_, James_NP1 II_MC ._. 
James_NP1 sought_VVD to_TO reassert_VVI the_AT divine_JJ right_NN1 of_IO kings_NN2 ,_, and_CC Parliament_NN1 combined_VVN against_II him_PPHO1 ._. 
In_II 1688_MC James_NP1 fled_VVD the_AT country_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT invitation_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ,_, the_AT throne_NN1 was_VBDZ taken_VVN by_II William_NP1 and_CC Mary_NP1 of_IO Orange_NN1 ,_, James_NP1 '_GE son-in-law_NN1 and_CC daughter_NN1 ._. 
The_AT new_JJ occupants_NN2 of_IO the_AT throne_NN1 owed_VVD their_APPGE position_NN1 to_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT new_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 was_VBDZ asserted_VVN by_II statute_NN1 in_II the_AT Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 was_VBDZ important_JJ for_IF enumerating_VVG various_JJ &quot;_" Liberties_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 Kingdom_NN1 &quot;_" (_( Some_DD of_IO which_DDQ were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI similarly_RR expressed_VVN during_II the_AT following_JJ century_NNT1 in_II the_AT Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 )_) ,_, its_APPGE essential_JJ purpose_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO assert_VVI the_AT position_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 in_II31 relation_II32 to_II33 the_AT Crown_NN1 ._. 
The_AT raising_NN1 of_IO taxes_NN2 or_CC the_AT dispensing_NN1 of_IO laws_NN2 without_IW the_AT assent_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 was_VBDZ declared_VVN to_TO be_VBI illegal_JJ ._. 
The_AT monarch_NN1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO govern_VVI ,_, but_CCB to_TO do_VDI so_RG only_RR with_IW the_AT consent_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Act_NN1 of_IO Settlement_NN1 of_IO 1701_MC ,_, which_DDQ determined_VVD the_AT succession_NN1 to_II the_AT throne_NN1 ,_, affirmed_VVD that_CST the_AT laws_NN2 of_IO England_NP1 &quot;_" are_VBR the_AT Birthright_NN1 of_IO the_AT People_NN thereof_RR and_CC all_DB the_AT Kings_NN2 and_CC Queens_NN2 who_PNQS shall_VM ascend_VVI the_AT Throne_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 Realm_NN1 ought_VMK to_TO administer_VVI the_AT Government_NN1 of_IO the_AT same_DA according_II21 to_II22 the_AT said_JJ Laws_NN2 and_CC all_DB their_APPGE Officers_NN2 and_CC Ministers_NN2 ought_VMK to_TO serve_VVI them_PPHO2 respectively_RR according_II21 to_II22 the_AT same_DA ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT monarch_NN1 thus_RR became_VVD formally_RR dependent_JJ on_II Parliament_NN1 for_IF consent_NN1 to_II the_AT raising_NN1 of_IO taxes_NN2 and_CC for_IF the_AT passage_NN1 of_IO legislation_NN1 ._. 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 or_CC she_PPHS1 became_VVD increasingly_RR dependent_JJ also_RR on_II ministers_NN2 for_IF advice_NN1 ._. 
The_AT importance_NN1 of_IO ministers_NN2 grew_VVD especially_RR in_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT Hanoverian_JJ kings_NN2 were_VBDR not_XX uninterested_JJ in_II political_JJ life_NN1 but_CCB they_PPHS2 had_VHD difficulty_NN1 comprehending_VVG the_AT complexities_NN2 of_IO domestic_JJ and_CC foreign_JJ affairs_NN2 ._. 
According_II21 to_II22 the_AT historian_NN1 J._NP1 H._NP1 Plumb_NP1 ,_, both_DB2 George_NP1 I_MC1 and_CC George_NP1 II_MC were_VBDR &quot;_" crassly_RR stupid_JJ &quot;_" and_CC &quot;_" incapable_JJ ,_, totally_RR incapable_JJ ,_, of_IO forming_VVG a_AT1 policy_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" During_II the_AT period_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE reigns_NN2 ,_, the_AT leading_JJ body_NN1 of_IO the_AT king_NN1 's_GE ministers_NN2 ,_, generally_RR known_VVN as_II the_AT cabinet_NN1 ,_, began_VVD to_TO meet_VVI without_IW the_AT king_NN1 being_VBG present_JJ ._. 
The_AT period_NN1 also_RR witnessed_VVD the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 minister_NN1 who_PNQS was_VBDZ to_TO become_VVI popularly_RR known_VVN as_II the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 ._. 
(_( Not_XX until_CS the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 was_VBDZ the_AT office_NN1 of_IO prime_JJ minister_NN1 to_TO be_VBI mentioned_VVN in_II a_AT1 statute_NN1 ._. )_) 
The_AT relationship_NN1 among_II Crown_NN1 ,_, ministers_NN2 ,_, and_CC Parliament_NN1 in_II that_DD1 century_NNT1 was_VBDZ one_PN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT king_NN1 relied_VVN on_II his_APPGE ministers_NN2 to_TO help_VVI formulate_VVI policy_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 ministers_NN2 were_VBDR chosen_VVN by_II the_AT king_NN1 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO his_APPGE personal_JJ confidence_NN1 in_II them_PPHO2 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 remained_VVD responsible_JJ to_II him_PPHO1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 also_RR were_VBDR responsible_JJ to_II Parliament_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO achieve_VVI their_APPGE ends_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 fact_NN1 recognized_VVN by_II both_DB2 the_AT king_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE ministers_NN2 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, parliamentary_JJ support_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX difficult_JJ to_TO obtain_VVI ;_; the_AT king_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE ministers_NN2 had_VHD sufficient_JJ patronage_NN1 and_CC position_NN1 usually_RR to_TO ensure_VVI such_DA support_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 ministry_NN1 that_CST enjoyed_VVD royal_JJ confidence_NN1 could_VM generally_RR take_VVI the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP for_IF grated_JJ ,_, and_CC provided_CS it_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX prove_VVI incompetent_JJ or_CC seek_VV0 to_TO impose_VVI excessive_JJ taxation_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" its_APPGE position_NN1 was_VBDZ unassailable_JJ in_II the_AT Commons_NP ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT position_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO change_VVI significantly_RR in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Britain_NP1 underwent_VVD what_DDQ has_VHZ been_VBN popularly_RR referred_VVN to_II as_II an_AT1 industrial_JJ revolution_NN1 in_II the_AT period_NN1 from_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 to_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD ._. 
Seymour_NP1 Martin_NP1 Lipset_NP1 has_VHZ characterized_VVN the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 as_II the_AT &quot;_" first_MD new_JJ nation_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" but_CCB Britain_NP1 has_VHZ been_VBN described_VVN as_II &quot;_" the_AT first_MD industrial_JJ nation_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Industry_NN1 became_VVD more_RRR mechanized_VVD ,_, improvements_NN2 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II agricultural_JJ production_NN1 techniques_NN2 ,_, and_CC there_EX were_VBDR improvements_NN2 in_II transport_NN1 and_CC in_II the_AT organization_NN1 of_IO trade_NN1 and_CC banking_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 notable_JJ growth_NN1 in_II the_AT size_NN1 of_IO cities_NN2 ,_, particularly_RR in_II the_AT early_JJ part_NN1 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
Men_NN2 of_IO industry_NN1 and_CC commerce_NN1 began_VVD to_TO emerge_VVI as_CSA men_NN2 of_IO some_DD wealth_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1813_MC ,_, Robert_NP1 Owen_NP1 referred_VVD to_II the_AT &quot;_" working_JJ class_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" a_AT1 term_NN1 brought_VVN into_II common_JJ speech_NN1 by_II Lord_NNB Brougham_NP1 ._. 
By_II the_AT 1830s_MC2 ,_, a_AT1 nonlanded_JJ middle_JJ class_NN1 ,_, artisans_NN2 ,_, and_CC an_AT1 industrial_JJ workforce_NN1 were_VBDR important_JJ constituents_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 's_GE population_NN1 ._. 
Parliament_NN1 remained_VVD dominated_VVN by_II the_AT aristocracy_NN1 and_CC by_II the_AT landed_JJ gentry_NN ._. 
Representation_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP was_VBDZ heavily_RR weighted_VVN in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 the_AT rural_JJ counties_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD parliamentary_JJ constituencies_NN2 had_VHD only_RR a_AT1 handful_NN1 of_IO electors_NN2 :_: known_VVN as_II &quot;_" rotten_JJ boroughs_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" they_PPHS2 were_VBDR often_RR in_II the_AT pocket_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 aristocrat_NN1 or_CC local_JJ landowner_NN1 ._. 
Pressure_NN1 for_IF some_DD parliamentary_JJ reform_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 redistribution_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 and_CC a_AT1 widening_NN1 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 ,_, began_VVD to_TO develop_VVI ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ argued_VVN that_CST a_AT1 Parliament_NN1 full_JJ of_IO men_NN2 of_IO wealth_NN1 and_CC property_NN1 was_VBDZ unlikely_JJ to_TO view_VVI industry_NN1 ,_, trade_NN1 ,_, and_CC agriculture_NN1 from_II the_AT point_NN1 of_IO view_NN1 of_IO the_AT laboring_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
Rotten_JJ boroughs_NN2 were_VBDR criticized_VVN as_CSA being_VBG used_VVN by_II the_AT ministry_NN1 to_TO help_VVI maintain_VVI a_AT1 majority_NN1 ._. 
Unrest_NN1 in_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO areas_NN2 ,_, both_RR agricultural_JJ and_CC industrial_JJ ,_, and_CC the_AT French_JJ Revolution_NN1 of_IO 1830_MC (_( a_AT1 spur_NN1 to_II radical_JJ action_NN1 )_) increased_VVD the_AT pressure_NN1 for_IF change_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 political_JJ group_NN1 in_RR21 particular_RR22 ,_, the_AT Whigs_NN2 ,_, who_PNQS had_VHD been_VBN the_AT &quot;_" outs_NN2 &quot;_" in_II politics_NN1 for_IF the_AT 25_MC years_NNT2 prior_II21 to_II22 1830_MC ,_, began_VVD to_TO see_VVI the_AT need_NN1 for_IF some_DD response_NN1 to_II this_DD1 pressure_NN1 ._. 
The_AT concession_NN1 of_IO some_DD parliamentary_JJ reform_NN1 was_VBDZ seen_VVN as_CSA necessary_JJ in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO prevent_VVI worse_JJR happenings_NN2 ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI the_AT Reform_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1832_MC ._. 
The_AT Reform_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, introduced_VVD ,_, ironically_RR ,_, by_II the_AT most_RGT aristocratic_JJ government_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ,_, reorganized_VVD parliamentary_JJ constituencies_NN2 and_CC extended_VVD the_AT franchise_NN1 ._. 
The_AT electorate_NN1 increased_VVN in_II size_NN1 from_II a_RR21 little_RR22 under_RG 500,000_MC to_II 813,000_MC electors_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS much_RR remained_VVD the_AT same_DA as_CSA before_II the_AT new_JJ electorate_NN1 constituted_VVN but_CCB one-thirtieth_MF of_IO the_AT population_NN1 ,_, 31_MC boroughs_NN2 still_RR had_VHD fewer_DAR than_CSN 300_MC electors_NN2 in_II each_DD1 ,_, voting_NN1 remained_VVD by_II open_JJ ballot_NN1 (_( secret_JJ ballots_NN2 were_VBDR considered_VVN rather_RG un-English_JJ )_) ,_, and_CC the_AT aristocracy_NN1 still_RR held_VVN great_JJ sway_NN1 politically_RR the_AT act_NN1 precipitated_VVD important_JJ changes_NN2 both_RR within_RL and_CC outside_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
The_AT redistribution_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 and_CC the_AT extension_NN1 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 helped_VVN loosen_VVI the_AT grip_NN1 of_IO the_AT aristocracy_NN1 and_CC of_IO ministers_NN2 on_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
The_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ electorate_NN1 encouraged_VVD the_AT embryonic_JJ development_NN1 of_IO political_JJ organizations_NN2 ._. 
Members_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 (_( MPs_NNU )_) became_VVD less_RGR dependent_JJ on_II aristocratic_JJ patrons_NN2 without_IW acquiring_VVG too_RG great_JJ a_AT1 dependence_NN1 on_II the_AT growing_JJ party_NN1 organizations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP with_IW a_AT1 greater_JJR legitimacy_NN1 in_II the_AT eyes_NN2 of_IO MPs_NNU and_CC electors_NN2 and_CC one_PN1 with_IW an_AT1 ability_NN1 to_TO assert_VVI itself_PPX1 in_II its_APPGE relationship_NN1 with_IW government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 proved_VVD willing_JJ to_TO amend_VVI or_CC reject_VVI legislation_NN1 put_VVN before_CS it_PPH1 as_RG well_RR as_CSA to_TO remove_VVI individual_JJ ministers_NN2 and_CC on_II the_AT occasion_NN1 the_AT government_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
In_II his_APPGE classic_JJ work_NN1 on_II the_AT constitution_NN1 ,_, Walter_NP1 Bagehot_NP1 attached_VVD much_DA1 importance_NN1 to_II this_DD1 &quot;_" elective_JJ function_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ,_, he_PPHS1 declared_VVD ,_, was_VBDZ &quot;_" a_AT1 real_JJ choosing_NN1 body_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 elects_VVZ the_AT people_NN it_PPH1 likes_VVZ ._. 
And_CC it_PPH1 dismisses_VVZ whom_PNQO it_PPH1 likes_VVZ too_RR ._. 
&quot;_" Debates_NN2 in_II the_AT House_NN1 really_RR counted_VVN for_IF something_PN1 and_CC ,_, with_IW the_AT exception_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1841_MC to_II 1846_MC ,_, party_NN1 cohesion_NN1 was_VBDZ almost_RR unknown_JJ ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP did_VDD not_XX itself_PPX1 govern_VVI ,_, but_CCB government_NN1 was_VBDZ carried_VVN on_RP within_II the_AT confines_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE guidance_NN1 and_CC approval_NN1 ._. 
The_AT period_NN1 after_II 1832_MC witnessed_VVD also_RR important_JJ changes_NN2 in_II the_AT relationships_NN2 within_RL and_CC among_II the_AT different_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO Crown_NN1 ,_, government_NN1 ,_, and_CC Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT monarch_NN1 retained_VVD the_AT formal_JJ prerogative_NN1 power_NN1 to_TO appoint_VVI the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT changed_JJ political_JJ circumstances_NN2 essentially_RR dictated_VVN that_CST the_AT person_NN1 chosen_VVN should_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO command_VVI a_AT1 majority_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
Royal_JJ favor_NN1 ceased_VVD to_TO be_VBI an_AT1 essential_JJ condition_NN1 for_IF forming_VVG the_AT Government_NN1 ._. 
Within_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC Houses_NN2 also_RR changed_VVN ._. 
Members_NN2 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP sat_VVD by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO birth_NN1 ,_, holding_VVG hereditary_JJ peerages_NN2 ._. 
The_AT acceptance_NN1 of_IO the_AT Commons_NP as_CSA the_AT &quot;_" representative_JJ &quot;_" chamber_NN1 undermined_VVD the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO the_AT peers_NN2 to_TO challenge_VVI or_CC negate_VVI the_AT wishes_NN2 of_IO the_AT other_JJ House_NN1 ._. 
After_CS the_AT 1830s_MC2 ,_, the_AT Lords_NN2 tended_VVD to_TO be_VBI somewhat_RR restrained_VVN in_II their_APPGE attacks_NN2 on_II government_NN1 measures_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" This_DD1 followed_VVD ,_, &quot;_" writes_VVZ Mackintosh_NP1 ,_, &quot;_" from_II the_AT view_NN1 that_CST while_CS a_AT1 ministry_NN1 retained_VVD the_AT confidence_NN1 of_IO the_AT elected_JJ representatives_NN2 it_PPH1 was_VBDZ entitled_VVN to_TO remain_VVI in_II office_NN1 ._. 
The_AT peers_NN2 on_II the_AT whole_NN1 accepted_VVD these_DD2 assumptions_NN2 ,_, though_CS many_DA2 found_VVD the_AT explicit_JJ recognition_NN1 of_IO the_AT situation_NN1 hard_RR to_TO bear_VVI ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT Lords_NP '_GE remaining_JJ authority_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II practice_NN1 to_TO be_VBI removed_VVN in_II consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1867_MC Reform_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, though_CS not_XX until_CS the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 was_VBDZ the_AT House_NN1 forced_VVN formally_RR to_TO accept_VVI its_APPGE diminished_JJ status_NN1 ._. 
Whereas_CS the_AT 1832_MC Act_NN1 helped_VVN ensure_VVI the_AT dominance_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP within_II the_AT formal_JJ political_JJ process_NN1 ,_, the_AT passage_NN1 of_IO the_AT Reform_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1867_MC began_VVD a_AT1 process_NN1 of_IO the_AT transfer_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 from_II Parliament_NN1 to_II Ministers_NN2 ._. 
The_AT act_NN1 itself_PPX1 was_VBDZ the_AT product_NN1 of_IO demands_NN2 for_IF change_NN1 because_II21 of_II22 the_AT limited_JJ impact_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1832_MC Act_NN1 and_CC because_II21 of_II22 more_RGR immediate_JJ political_JJ considerations_NN2 ._. 
Its_APPGE effect_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO increase_VVI the_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 from_II 1,358,000_MC to_II 2,477,000_MC ._. 
(_( The_AT number_NN1 had_VHD grown_VVN since_II 1832_MC because_II21 of_II22 increased_JJ wealth_NN1 and_CC population_NN1 ._. )_) 
Other_JJ significant_JJ measures_NN2 followed_VVN in_II its_APPGE wake_NN1 ._. 
Secret_JJ voting_NN1 was_VBDZ introduced_VVN by_II the_AT Ballot_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1870_MC ._. 
Other_JJ acts_NN2 sought_VVD to_TO prohibit_VVI as_RG far_RR as_CSA possible_JJ corrupt_JJ practices_NN2 and_CC limited_VVN the_AT amount_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 a_AT1 candidate_NN1 could_VM spend_VVI on_II election_NN1 expenses_NN2 ._. 
Single-member_JJ districts_NN2 (_( known_VVN in_II Britain_NP1 as_CSA constituencies_NN2 )_) of_IO roughly_RR equal_JJ electoral_JJ size_NN1 were_VBDR prescribed_VVN as_II the_AT norm_NN1 ._. 
The_AT 1884_MC Representation_NN1 of_IO the_AT People_NN Act_NN1 extended_VVD the_AT franchise_NN1 to_II householders_NN2 and_CC tenants_NN2 and_CC to_II all_DB those_DD2 who_PNQS occupied_VVD land_NN1 or_CC tenements_NN2 with_IW an_AT1 annual_JJ value_NN1 of_IO not_XX less_DAR than_CSN 10_MC pounds_NN2 ._. 
The_AT effect_NN1 of_IO the_AT act_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO bring_VVI into_II being_VBG an_AT1 electorate_NN1 in_II which_DDQ working_JJ men_NN2 were_VBDR in_II a_AT1 majority_NN1 ._. 
The_AT consequence_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 developments_NN2 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI party_NN1 government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT size_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ electorate_NN1 meant_VVD that_CST the_AT voters_NN2 could_VM be_VBI reached_VVN only_RR through_II some_DD well-developed_JJ organization_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT result_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO organized_JJ and_CC mass-membership_JJ political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_JJ National_JJ Union_NN1 and_CC the_AT National_JJ Liberal_JJ Federation_NN1 were_VBDR formed_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO facilitate_VVI and_CC encourage_VVI the_AT support_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ electors_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, contact_VV0 with_IW the_AT voters_NN2 was_VBDZ insufficient_JJ in_II itself_PPX1 to_TO entice_VVI their_APPGE support_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX only_RR had_VHN a_AT1 large_JJ section_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 been_VBN enfranchised_VVN ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 notably_RR different_JJ electorate_NN1 from_II that_DD1 which_DDQ had_VHD existed_VVN previously_RR ._. 
The_AT new_JJ class_NN1 of_IO electors_NN2 had_VHD different_JJ and_CC greater_JJR demands_NN2 than_CSN those_DD2 of_IO the_AT existing_JJ middle-class_JJ electors_NN2 ._. 
If_CS the_AT votes_NN2 of_IO working_VVG men_NN2 were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI obtained_VVN ,_, the_AT parties_NN2 had_VHD to_TO offer_VVI them_PPHO2 something_PN1 ._. 
And_CC the_AT parties_NN2 could_VM fulfil_VVI their_APPGE promises_NN2 only_RR if_CS they_PPHS2 presented_VVD a_AT1 uniform_JJ program_NN1 to_II the_AT electorate_NN1 and_CC achieved_VVN a_AT1 cohesive_JJ majority_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP to_TO carry_VVI through_II that_DD1 program_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ this_DD1 was_VBDZ to_TO produce_VVI was_VBDZ a_AT1 shift_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP to_II the_AT cabinet_NN1 and_CC to_II the_AT electorate_NN1 ,_, with_IW political_JJ parties_NN2 serving_VVG as_II the_AT conduit_NN1 for_IF this_DD1 transfer_NN1 ._. 
The_AT electorate_NN1 proved_VVD too_RG large_JJ and_CC too_RG politically_RR unsophisticated_JJ to_TO evaluate_VVI the_AT merits_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 individual_JJ MP_NN1 's_GE behaviour_NN1 ._. 
Political_JJ parties_NN2 provided_VVD the_AT labels_NN2 with_IW which_DDQ electors_NN2 could_VM identify_VVI ,_, and_CC elections_NN2 became_VVD gladiatorial_JJ contests_NN2 between_II parties_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 between_II individual_JJ candidates_NN2 ._. 
The_AT all-or-nothing_JJ spoils_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 election_NN1 victory_NN1 and_CC the_AT method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 encouraged_VVN (_( if_CS it_PPH1 not_XX always_RR produced_VVN )_) a_AT1 contest_NN1 between_II two_MC major_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
And_CC having_VHG voted_VVN for_IF party_NN1 candidates_NN2 ,_, the_AT electors_NN2 expected_VVD the_AT members_NN2 returned_VVN to_II Parliament_NN1 to_TO support_VVI the_AT program_NN1 offered_VVN by_II their_APPGE leaders_NN2 at_II the_AT election_NN1 ._. 
Party_NN1 cohesion_NN1 soon_RR became_VVD a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP in_II effect_NN1 lost_VVD two_MC of_IO the_AT most_RGT important_JJ functions_NN2 ascribed_VVN to_II it_PPH1 by_II Bagehot_NP1 ,_, those_DD2 of_IO legislation_NN1 and_CC of_IO choosing_VVG the_AT government_NN1 :_: the_AT former_DA passed_VVD to_II the_AT cabinet_NN1 and_CC the_AT latter_DA to_II the_AT electorate_NN1 ._. 
The_AT cabinet_NN1 constituted_VVD the_AT leaders_NN2 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 enjoying_VVG a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ majority_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 assumed_VVD that_DD1 initiative_NN1 for_IF the_AT formulation_NN1 and_CC introduction_NN1 of_IO measures_NN2 of_IO national_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC became_VVD increasingly_RR reluctant_JJ to_TO be_VBI over-ruled_VVN by_II the_AT House_NN1 ._. 
The_AT growth_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 and_CC complexity_NN1 of_IO bills_NN2 further_RRR limited_VVN the_AT influence_NN1 of_IO the_AT individual_JJ MP_NN1 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, his_APPGE role_NN1 became_VVD one_MC1 of_IO supporting_VVG his_APPGE leaders_NN2 ._. 
The_AT cabinet_NN1 had_VHD previously_RR rested_VVN its_APPGE authority_NN1 on_II the_AT support_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 ;_; now_RT it_PPH1 derived_VVD its_APPGE authority_NN1 from_II the_AT electors_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA Mackintosh_NP1 states_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" The_AT task_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP became_VVD one_MC1 of_IO supporting_VVG the_AT Cabinet_NN1 chosen_VVN at_II the_AT polls_NN2 and_CC passing_VVG its_APPGE legislation_NN1 ..._... 
By_II the_AT 1990s_MC2 ,_, the_AT Cabinet_NN1 dominated_VVD British_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Further_JJR modifications_NN2 and_CC addenda_NN1 took_VVD place_NN1 in_II the_AT first_MD half_NN1 of_IO the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP was_VBDZ forced_VVN by_II statute_NN1 in_II 1911_MC to_TO accept_VVI its_APPGE diminished_JJ status_NN1 ._. 
The_AT franchise_NN1 was_VBDZ variously_RR extended_VVN ,_, most_RGT notably_RR to_II half_DB the_AT population_NN1 previously_RR excluded_VVN because_II21 of_II22 their_APPGE sex_NN1 ._. 
The_AT monarch_NN1 's_GE political_JJ influence_NN1 further_RRR receded_VVD ._. 
The_AT growth_NN1 and_CC increasing_JJ economic_JJ weight_NN1 of_IO groups_NN2 generated_VVN more_RGR extensive_JJ and_CC complex_JJ demands_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
And_CC the_AT size_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 grew_VVD as_CSA its_APPGE responsibilities_NN2 expanded_VVD ._. 
Basically_RR ,_, though_CS ,_, the_AT essential_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 were_VBDR those_DD2 established_VVN in_II the_AT preceding_JJ century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT responsibility_NN1 for_IF making_VVG public_JJ policy_NN1 rested_VVN with_IW the_AT government_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 government_NN1 derived_VVN from_II and_CC resting_VVG its_APPGE support_NN1 upon_II a_AT1 political_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 same_DA party_NN1 's_GE majority_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ensured_VVD that_CST the_AT government_NN1 's_GE measures_NN2 were_VBDR approved_VVN ._. 
Formal_JJ and_CC political_JJ constraints_NN2 limited_VVN the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO any_DD opposition_NN1 from_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP ._. 
The_AT monarch_NN1 gave_VVD formal_JJ assent_NN1 to_II any_DD legislative_JJ measure_NN1 approved_VVN by_II the_AT two_MC houses_NN2 ._. 
Thus_RR ,_, within_II the_AT formal_JJ framework_NN1 of_IO deciding_VVG public_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, the_AT government_NN1 was_VBDZ dominant_JJ ._. 
The_AT role_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 became_VVD largely_RR but_CCB not_XX wholly_RR one_MC1 of_IO legitimating_VVG the_AT measures_NN2 put_VVN before_CS it_PPH1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT monarch_NN1 ,_, that_CST became_VVD the_AT exclusive_JJ role_NN1 (_( that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, in_II31 respect_II32 of_II33 legislation_NN1 )_) ._. 
Government_NN1 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, operated_VVN within_II a_AT1 political_JJ environment_NN1 that_CST imposed_VVD important_JJ constraints_NN2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT limitations_NN2 imposed_VVD formerly_RR by_II Parliament_NN1 and_CC the_AT monarch_NN1 were_VBDR largely_RR eroded_VVN ._. 
Britain_NP1 retained_VVD a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ,_, but_CCB what_DDQ that_DD1 meant_VVD was_VBDZ not_XX government_NN1 by_II Parliament_NN1 but_CCB government_NN1 through_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
To_TO comprehend_VVI some_DD of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 faced_VVN by_II British_JJ government_NN1 in_II the_AT 1980s_MC2 it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO know_VVI not_XX only_RR the_AT structure_NN1 and_CC relationships_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 but_CCB also_RR the_AT popular_JJ expectations_NN2 and_CC the_AT burden_NN1 of_IO responsibilities_NN2 borne_VVN by_II government_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 expectations_NN2 and_CC responsibilities_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN static_JJ ._. 
Just_RR as_CSA the_AT governmental_JJ structure_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN modified_VVN in_II31 response_II32 to_II33 political_JJ demands_NN2 ,_, so_CS the_AT responsibilities_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 have_VH0 grown_VVN as_CSA greater_JJR social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ demands_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN made_VVN of_IO it_PPH1 ._. 
The_AT Welfare_NN1 State_NN1 and_CC the_AT Managed_VVN Economy_NN1 Toward_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 and_CC more_RGR especially_RR in_II the_AT twentieth_MD ,_, the_AT responsibilities_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 expanded_VVD ._. 
In_RR21 part_RR22 this_DD1 was_VBDZ attributable_JJ to_II the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO the_AT Empire_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR attributable_JJ to_II the_AT increasing_JJ demands_NN2 and_CC expectations_NN2 of_IO the_AT newly_RR enfranchised_VVN working_VVG population_NN1 ._. 
Government_NN1 began_VVD to_TO conceive_VVI its_APPGE duties_NN2 as_CSA extending_VVG beyond_II those_DD2 of_IO maintaining_VVG law_NN1 and_CC order_NN1 and_CC of_IO defending_VVG the_AT realm_NN1 ._. 
The_AT statute_NN1 book_NN1 began_VVD to_TO expand_VVI ,_, with_IW the_AT addition_NN1 of_IO measures_NN2 of_IO social_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
Various_JJ such_DA measures_NN2 were_VBDR enacted_VVN in_II the_AT years_NNT2 prior_II21 to_II22 1867_MC ,_, though_CS the_AT most_RGT notable_JJ were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI enacted_VVN in_II the_AT remaining_JJ decades_NNT2 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 included_VVD measures_NN2 to_TO limit_VVI working_NN1 hours_NNT2 for_IF women_NN2 and_CC children_NN2 ,_, to_TO improve_VVI housing_NN1 and_CC public_JJ health_NN1 ,_, to_TO make_VVI education_NN1 for_IF children_NN2 compulsory_JJ ,_, to_TO provide_VVI for_IF the_AT safety_NN1 of_IO workers_NN2 (_( including_II the_AT payment_NN1 of_IO compensation_NN1 by_II employers_NN2 in_II the_AT event_NN1 of_IO accidents_NN2 at_II work_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC even_RR to_TO extend_VVI the_AT right_NN1 to_TO strike_VVI ._. 
Such_DA measures_NN2 ,_, exploited_VVN for_IF electoral_JJ advantage_NN1 ,_, were_VBDR within_II the_AT capabilities_NN2 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI ._. 
They_PPHS2 did_VDD not_XX create_VVI too_RG great_JJ an_AT1 economic_JJ burden_NN1 ;_; they_PPHS2 were_VBDR not_XX themselves_PPX2 economic_JJ measures_NN2 ._. 
The_AT growth_NN1 of_IO expectations_NN2 and_CC the_AT greater_JJR willingness_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 to_TO intervene_VVI in_II areas_NN2 previously_RR considered_VVN inviolate_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI continued_VVN and_CC become_VV0 more_RRR marked_VVN in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT general_JJ election_NN1 of_IO 1906_MC was_VBDZ something_PN1 of_IO a_AT1 watershed_NN1 in_II British_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT first_MD election_NN1 to_TO be_VBI fought_VVN essentially_RR on_II national_JJ issues_NN2 and_CC it_PPH1 witnessed_VVD the_AT return_NN1 not_XX only_RR of_IO a_AT1 reforming_JJ Liberal_JJ government_NN1 but_CCB also_RR ,_, and_CC in_II some_DD respects_NN2 more_RGR significantly_RR ,_, of_IO 27_MC Labour_JJ MPs_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN created_VVN for_IF the_AT purpose_NN1 of_IO ensuring_VVG working-class_JJ representation_NN1 in_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, and_CC from_II 1906_MC onward_RL class_NN1 became_VVD a_AT1 significant_JJ influence_NN1 in_II voting_NN1 behavior_NN1 ._. 
The_AT nature_NN1 of_IO electoral_JJ conflict_NN1 changed_VVN as_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 succeeded_VVD the_AT Liberal_JJ as_II the_AT main_JJ opposition_NN1 party_NN1 to_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT franchise_NN1 was_VBDZ further_RRR extended_VVN ,_, notably_RR in_II 1918_MC and_CC 1928_MC ,_, and_CC new_JJ expectations_NN2 were_VBDR generated_VVN by_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO the_AT two_MC world_NN1 wars_NN2 ._. 
During_II the_AT First_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 (_( 1914-1918_MCMC )_) ,_, socialists_NN2 within_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 argued_VVD the_AT case_NN1 for_IF the_AT conscription_NN1 of_IO wealth_NN1 (_( public_JJ ownership_NN1 )_) to_TO accompany_VVI the_AT conscription_NN1 of_IO labor_NN1 (_( the_AT drafting_NN1 of_IO men_NN2 into_II the_AT armed_JJ forces_NN2 )_) ._. 
Politicians_NN2 fueled_VVD rather_CS21 than_CS22 played_VVN down_RP the_AT belief_NN1 that_CST Britain_NP1 should_VM become_VVI ,_, in_II the_AT words_NN2 of_IO one_MC1 politician_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" a_AT1 land_NN1 fit_JJ for_IF heroes_NN2 &quot;_" once_RR &quot;_" the_AT war_NN1 to_TO end_VVI all_DB wars_NN2 &quot;_" was_VBDZ won_VVN in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, that_DD1 provision_NN1 should_VM be_VBI made_VVN for_IF those_DD2 who_PNQS had_VHD fought_VVN for_IF King_NN1 and_CC Country_NN1 ._. 
The_AT period_NN1 of_IO the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 (_( 1939-1945_MCMC )_) witnessed_VVD a_AT1 significant_JJ shift_NN1 of_IO attitudes_NN2 by_II a_AT1 sizable_JJ fraction_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 ._. 
One_PN1 informed_VVD estimate_NN1 was_VBDZ that_CST by_II December_NPM1 1942_MC ,_, about_RG two_MC out_II21 of_II22 every_AT1 five_MC people_NN had_VHD changed_VVN their_APPGE political_JJ outlook_NN1 since_CS the_AT beginning_NN1 of_IO the_AT war_NN1 ._. 
The_AT direction_NN1 in_II which_DDQ opinion_NN1 was_VBDZ moving_VVG was_VBDZ toward_II the_AT left_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ spectrum_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 reaction_NN1 against_II (_( Conservative_NN1 )_) government_NN1 unpreparedness_NN1 for_IF war_NN1 in_II the_AT 1930s_MC2 and_CC against_II those_DD2 who_PNQS had_VHD not_XX done_VDN more_RRR to_TO solve_VVI the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE problems_NN2 during_II the_AT Depression_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ support_NN1 for_IF calls_NN2 for_IF equality_NN1 of_IO sacrifice_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ some_DD degree_NN1 of_IO goodwill_NN1 toward_II the_AT Soviet_JJ Union_NN1 as_II a_AT1 wartime_NN1 ally_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ also_RR ,_, very_RG importantly_RR ,_, the_AT enhanced_JJ position_NN1 of_IO the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 had_VHD entered_VVN into_II Coalition_NN1 in_II 1940_MC (_( its_APPGE leader_NN1 ,_, Clement_NP1 Attlee_NP1 ,_, became_VVD deputy_NN1 prime_JJ minister_NN1 to_II Churchill_NP1 )_) and_CC had_VHD demonstrated_VVN its_APPGE claim_NN1 to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 capable_JJ partner_NN1 in_II government_NN1 ._. 
As_II the_AT 1940s_MC2 progressed_VVD ,_, there_EX developed_VVD a_AT1 notable_JJ movement_NN1 ,_, including_VVG within_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ,_, for_IF a_AT1 greater_JJR degree_NN1 of_IO social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ intervention_NN1 by_II government_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 was_VBDZ to_TO find_VVI some_DD authoritative_JJ expression_NN1 during_II the_AT war_NN1 years_NNT2 themselves_PPX2 and_CC more_RGR especially_RR in_II the_AT years_NNT2 after_II 1945_MC ,_, when_CS a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 resulted_VVN in_II the_AT return_NN1 of_IO the_AT first_MD Labour_JJ government_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 clear_JJ working_JJ majority_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
The_AT period_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1940s_MC2 and_CC the_AT 1950s_MC2 was_VBDZ to_TO produce_VVI what_DDQ Samuel_NP1 Beer_NN1 has_VHZ referred_VVN to_II as_II the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC the_AT managed_JJ economy_NN1 ,_, or_CC what_DDQ some_DD commentators_NN2 have_VH0 referred_VVN to_II as_II the_AT period_NN1 of_IO the_AT social_JJ democratic_JJ consensus_NN1 ._. 
The_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC the_AT managed_JJ economy_NN1 did_VDD not_XX suddenly_RR emerge_VVI full-blown_JJ in_II this_DD1 period_NN1 ._. 
The_AT preceding_JJ decades_NNT2 has_VHZ not_XX witnessed_VVN governments_NN2 unresponsive_JJ to_II electoral_JJ expectations_NN2 and_CC the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Liberal_JJ government_NN1 before_II the_AT First_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 had_VHD made_VVN the_AT first_MD tentative_JJ steps_NN2 in_II the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO old-age_JJ pensions_NN2 (_( 1908_MC )_) and_CC national_JJ health_NN1 and_CC unemployment_NN1 insurance_NN1 (_( 1911_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT interwar_NN1 years_NNT2 had_VHD seen_VVN the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO significant_JJ measures_NN2 of_IO social_JJ reform_NN1 ,_, especially_RR those_DD2 associated_VVN with_IW Neville_NP1 Chamberlain_NP1 as_CSA minister_NN1 of_IO health_NN1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 proposed_VVD to_II the_AT cabinet_NN1 25_MC measures_NN2 and_CC secured_VVD the_AT enactment_NN1 of_IO 21_MC of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
These_DD2 included_VVN unemployment_NN1 insurance_NN1 ,_, public_JJ health_NN1 and_CC housing_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT extension_NN1 of_IO old-age_JJ pensions_NN2 ._. 
Much_DA1 of_IO this_DD1 legislation_NN1 ,_, as_CSA one_MC1 biographer_NN1 noted_VVD ,_, &quot;_" has_VHZ an_AT1 important_JJ place_NN1 in_II the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT Welfare_NN1 State_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT government_NN1 also_RR began_VVD to_TO engage_VVI in_II certain_JJ measures_NN2 of_IO economic_JJ management_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 embarked_VVD on_II a_AT1 protectionist_JJ policy_NN1 and_CC in_II31 return_II32 for_II33 the_AT grant_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 tariff_NN1 to_II an_AT1 industry_NN1 ,_, demanded_VVD that_CST its_APPGE major_JJ producers_NN2 should_VM reorganize_VVI themselves_PPX2 ._. 
Such_DA producers_NN2 were_VBDR encouraged_VVN to_TO reduce_VVI capacity_NN1 and_CC maintain_VVI prices_NN2 ._. 
The_AT gold_NN1 standard_NN1 was_VBDZ abandoned_VVN ,_, the_AT pound_NN1 was_VBDZ devalued_VVN ,_, and_CC interest_NN1 rates_NN2 were_VBDR lowered_VVN ._. 
The_AT government_NN1 even_RR proved_VVN willing_JJ to_TO take_VVI certain_JJ industries_NN2 into_II public_JJ ownership_NN1 :_: broadcasting_NN1 ,_, overseas_JJ airways_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT electricity-generating_JJ industry_NN1 ._. 
By_II indulging_VVG in_II such_DA policies_NN2 ,_, Professor_NNB Beer_NP1 has_VHZ contended_VVN ,_, government_NN1 was_VBDZ beginning_VVG to_TO move_VVI in_II the_AT direction_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 managed_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT movement_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, was_VBDZ modest_JJ ._. 
Government_NN1 adhered_VVN to_II the_AT prevailing_JJ orthodoxy_NN1 that_CST balanced_JJ budgets_NN2 were_VBDR necessary_JJ and_CC desirable_JJ and_CC that_DD1 deficit_NN1 financing_NN1 was_VBDZ neither_RR ._. 
Ministers_NN2 showed_VVD little_DA1 desire_NN1 to_TO emulate_VVI the_AT innovative_JJ approach_NN1 adopted_VVN in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 by_II Franklin_NP1 Roosevelt_NP1 during_II the_AT period_NN1 of_IO the_AT first_MD New_JJ Deal_NN1 ._. 
(_( Indeed_RR ,_, Conservative_JJ leader_NN1 Stanley_NP1 Baldwin_NP1 commented_VVD at_II one_MC1 point_NN1 that_CST the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 had_VHD broken_VVN down_RP and_CC was_VBDZ giving_VVG way_NN1 to_II dictatorship_NN1 ._. )_) 
Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 were_VBDR similar_JJ ,_, though_CS ,_, in_CS21 that_CS22 both_DB2 were_VBDR to_TO be_VBI brought_VVN out_II21 of_II22 the_AT Depression_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1930s_MC2 not_XX by_II government_NN1 economic_JJ policies_NN2 but_CCB by_II rearmament_NN1 and_CC the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 ._. 
Two_MC major_JJ documents_NN2 published_VVN in_II the_AT war_NN1 years_NNT2 provided_CS the_AT planks_NN2 for_IF the_AT final_JJ emergence_NN1 of_IO the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC managed_VVD economy_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 were_VBDR the_AT Report_NN1 on_II Social_JJ Insurance_NN1 and_CC Allied_JJ Services_NN2 by_II Sir_NN1 william_NN1 Beveridge_NP1 (_( the_AT so-called_JJ Beveridge_NN1 Report_NN1 )_) ,_, published_VVN in_II November_NPM1 1942_MC ,_, and_CC the_AT White_JJ Paper_NN1 on_II Full_JJ Employment_NN1 ,_, published_VVN in_II 1944_MC ._. 
The_AT former_DA proposed_VVD a_AT1 comprehensive_JJ scheme_NN1 of_IO social_JJ security_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 to_TO provide_VVI &quot;_" social_JJ insurance_NN1 against_II interruption_NN1 and_CC destruction_NN1 of_IO earning_VVG power_NN1 and_CC for_IF special_JJ expenditure_NN1 arising_VVG at_II birth_NN1 ,_, marriage_NN1 or_CC death_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT latter_DA was_VBDZ significant_JJ because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE opening_NN1 pledge_NN1 :_: &quot;_" The_AT Government_NN1 accepts_VVZ as_CSA one_MC1 of_IO their_APPGE primary_JJ aims_NN2 and_CC responsibilities_NN2 the_AT maintenance_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 high_JJ and_CC stable_JJ level_NN1 of_IO employment_NN1 after_II the_AT war_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" There_EX was_VBDZ also_RR one_PN1 particularly_RR significant_JJ measure_NN1 of_IO social_JJ reform_NN1 enacted_VVN during_II wartime_NN1 :_: the_AT 1944_MC Education_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, pioneered_VVN by_II R._NP1 A._NP1 Butler_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Act_NN1 provided_VVN for_IF the_AT division_NN1 among_II primary_NN1 ,_, secondary_NN1 ,_, and_CC higher_JJR education_NN1 and_CC ,_, within_II secondary_JJ education_NN1 ,_, between_II secondary_JJ modern_JJ and_CC grammar_NN1 schools_NN2 that_CST was_VBDZ to_TO form_VVI the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT educational_JJ system_NN1 for_IF more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 generation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 was_VBDZ brought_VVN to_II fruition_NN1 by_II the_AT establishment_NN1 of_IO the_AT National_JJ Health_NN1 Service_NN1 (_( NHS_NP1 )_) in_II 1948_MC ,_, entailing_VVG the_AT nationalization_NN1 of_IO hospitals_NN2 and_CC the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO free_JJ medical_JJ treatment_NN1 ,_, and_CC by_II the_AT passage_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1945_MC Family_NN1 Allowance_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, the_AT 1946_MC National_JJ Insurance_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT 1948_MC National_JJ Assistance_NN1 Act._NP1 the_AT principle_NN1 enunciated_VVN by_II the_AT Beveridge_NP1 Report_NN1 was_VBDZ largely_RR put_VVN into_II practice_NN1 ._. 
National_JJ insurance_NN1 ensured_VVD a_AT1 certain_JJ level_NN1 of_IO benefit_NN1 in_II the_AT event_NN1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 or_CC sickness_NN1 ._. 
For_IF those_DD2 who_PNQS required_VVD special_JJ help_NN1 there_EX was_VBDZ &quot;_" national_JJ assistance_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO noncontributory_JJ benefits_NN2 dispensed_VVN on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO means-testing_NN1 ._. 
There_EX were_VBDR family_NN1 allowances_NN2 for_IF those_DD2 with_IW children_NN2 ._. 
The_AT state_NN1 now_RT provided_VVD something_PN1 of_IO a_AT1 protective_JJ safety_NN1 net_NN1 from_II the_AT cradle_NN1 to_II the_AT grave_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ still_RR possible_JJ to_TO pay_VVI for_IF private_JJ treatment_NN1 in_II the_AT health_NN1 service_NN1 ,_, but_CCB for_IF most_DAT people_NN it_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 case_NN1 of_IO having_VHG treatment_NN1 &quot;_" on_II the_AT national_JJ health_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT NHS_NP1 became_VVD a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO some_DD pride_NN1 at_II home_NN1 and_CC of_IO considerable_JJ interest_NN1 abroad_RL ._. 
Acceptance_NN1 and_CC usage_NN1 of_IO techniques_NN2 pioneered_VVN by_II the_AT economist_NN1 J._NP1 M._NN1 Keynes_NP1 ushered_VVD in_RP the_AT managed_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
Government_NN1 accepted_JJ responsibility_NN1 for_IF keeping_VVG aggregate_JJ monetary_JJ demand_NN1 at_II a_AT1 level_JJ sufficient_JJ to_TO ensure_VVI full_JJ employment_NN1 or_CC what_DDQ was_VBDZ considered_VVN as_RG far_RR as_CSA possible_JJ to_TO constitute_VVI full_JJ employment_NN1 (_( an_AT1 unemployment_NN1 rate_NN1 of_IO 1%_NNU or_CC 2%_NNU was_VBDZ considered_VVN acceptable_JJ )_) ,_, and_CC the_AT annual_JJ Budget_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI used_VVN as_II the_AT main_JJ instrument_NN1 of_IO economic_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ government_NN1 proved_VVD unwilling_JJ to_TO pursue_VVI a_AT1 more_RGR overtly_RR socialist_JJ approach_NN1 ;_; physical_JJ controls_NN2 acquired_VVN during_II wartime_NN1 were_VBDR eventually_RR discarded_VVN and_CC those_DD2 industries_NN2 that_CST were_VBDR nationalized_JJ ,_, such_II21 as_II22 steel_NN1 and_CC the_AT railways_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR basically_RR essential_JJ and_CC loss-making_JJ concerns_NN2 ._. 
Government_NN1 was_VBDZ prepared_VVN to_TO pursue_VVI a_AT1 managed_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 controlled_JJ economy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 was_VBDZ returned_VVN to_II office_NN1 in_II 1951_MC and_CC was_VBDZ to_TO remain_VVI there_RL until_II 1964_MC ._. 
It_PPH1 accepted_VVD ,_, or_CC appeared_VVD to_TO accept_VVI ,_, both_DB2 the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 and_CC Keynesian_JJ techniques_NN2 of_IO demand_NN1 management_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, it_PPH1 gave_VVD the_AT impression_NN1 of_IO making_VVG a_AT1 success_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 ._. 
As_CSA heir_NN1 to_II the_AT Disraelian_JJ belief_NN1 in_II elevating_VVG the_AT condition_NN1 of_IO the_AT people_NN and_CC as_II a_AT1 party_NN1 seeking_VVG to_TO enhance_VVI its_APPGE image_NN1 among_II working_JJ class_NN1 voters_NN2 ,_, the_AT Conservative_JJ Party_NN1 could_VM claim_VVI both_RR a_AT1 principled_JJ as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 a_AT1 practical_JJ motive_NN1 for_IF maintaining_VVG the_AT innovations_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE predecessor_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT same_DA time_NNT1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ reluctant_JJ to_TO pursue_VVI policies_NN2 that_CST would_VM increase_VVI the_AT tax_NN1 burden_NN1 or_CC the_AT public_JJ sector_NN1 of_IO the_AT economy_NN1 ._. 
Good_JJ fortune_NN1 was_VBDZ with_IW the_AT government_NN1 :_: world_NN1 economic_JJ conditions_NN2 improved_VVN and_CC heralded_VVN a_AT1 period_NN1 of_IO sustained_JJ growth_NN1 in_II industrial_JJ output_NN1 and_CC trade_NN1 ._. 
Government_NN1 revenue_NN1 was_VBDZ such_CS21 that_CS22 not_XX only_RR was_VBDZ it_PPH1 possible_JJ to_TO sustain_VVI and_CC indeed_RR expand_VVI expenditure_NN1 on_II the_AT national_JJ health_NN1 serve_VV0 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ possible_JJ to_TO do_VDI so_RR without_IW substantial_JJ increases_NN2 in_II taxation_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, reductions_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 increases_NN2 in_II tax_NN1 rates_NN2 were_VBDR a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ an_AT1 extensive_JJ and_CC successful_JJ house-building_JJ program_NN1 ._. 
Economic_JJ prosperity_NN1 allowed_VVD government_NN1 to_TO maintain_VVI peace_NN1 with_IW the_AT labor_NN1 unions_NN2 by_II allowing_VVG high_JJ wage_NN1 settlements_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ also_RR possible_JJ finally_RR to_TO abandon_VVI many_DA2 of_IO the_AT controls_NN2 maintained_VVN since_II wartime_NN1 ._. 
Government_NN1 was_VBDZ able_JK to_TO claim_VVI to_TO have_VHI maintained_VVN full_JJ employment_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 expanding_JJ economy_NN1 ,_, stable_JJ prices_NN2 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 strong_JJ pound_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II the_AT agonies_NN2 of_IO withdrawing_VVG from_II Empire_NN1 and_CC various_JJ undulations_NN2 in_II economic_JJ performance_NN1 ,_, the_AT decade_NNT1 of_IO the_AT 1950s_MC2 was_VBDZ seen_VVN more_RRR than_CSN anything_PN1 as_II &quot;_" an_AT1 age_NN1 of_IO affluence_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" In_II July_NPM1 1957_MC ,_, Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 Harold_NP1 Macmillan_NP1 was_VBDZ able_JK to_TO declare_VVI that_DD1 ,_, for_IF most_DAT of_IO the_AT people_NN ,_, &quot;_" You_PPY 've_VH0 never_RR had_VHN it_PPH1 so_RG good_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT 1960s_MC2 witnessed_VVD a_AT1 downturn_NN1 in_II economic_JJ performance_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 growing_JJ realization_NN1 that_CST ,_, in_II comparative_JJ terms_NN2 ,_, Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ faring_VVG less_RGR well_RR than_CSN many_DA2 of_IO her_APPGE continental_JJ neighbors_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_JJ government_NN1 of_IO Harold_NP1 Macmillan_NP1 responded_VVD with_IW various_JJ novel_JJ proposals_NN2 ,_, including_II indicative_JJ economic_JJ planning_NN1 and_CC an_AT1 application_NN1 to_TO join_VVI the_AT European_JJ Economic_JJ Community_NN1 ._. 
The_AT succeeding_JJ Labour_JJ government_NN1 of_IO Harold_NP1 Wilson_NP1 ,_, returned_VVN to_II office_NN1 in_II 1964_MC ,_, sought_VVD a_AT1 more_RGR comprehensive_JJ method_NN1 of_IO national_JJ economic_JJ planning_NN1 as_II part_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE grand_JJ design_NN1 of_IO modernization_NN1 ._. 
Inflation_NN1 and_CC unemployment_NN1 became_VVD more_RGR visible_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
Despite_II the_AT economic_JJ problems_NN2 and_CC some_DD unrelated_JJ political_JJ problems_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1960s_MC2 ,_, the_AT country_NN1 remained_VVD a_AT1 relatively_RR prosperous_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
Living_JJ conditions_NN2 continued_VVD to_TO improve_VVI ._. 
The_AT rise_NN1 in_II wages_NN2 exceeded_VVD the_AT rise_NN1 in_II inflation_NN1 ._. 
Where_CS economic_JJ conditions_NN2 impinged_VVN on_II the_AT ability_NN1 to_TO maintain_VVI the_AT welfare_NN1 state_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ essentially_RR at_II the_AT margin_NN1 :_: government_NN1 imposed_VVD nominal_JJ charges_NN2 for_IF medicines_NN2 obtained_VVN on_II NHS_NP1 prescriptions_NN2 ._. 
Parties_NN2 tended_VVD to_TO argue_VVI more_RRR about_II means_NN rather_II21 than_II22 ends_NN2 ._. 
The_AT consensus_NN1 that_CST developed_VVD in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 remained_VVD intact_JJ ._. 
This_DD1 brief_JJ survey_NN1 not_XX only_RR provides_VVZ some_DD historical_JJ depth_NN1 to_II an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO contemporary_JJ British_JJ government_NN1 its_APPGE structure_NN1 ,_, responsibilities_NN2 ,_, and_CC political_JJ dominance_NN1 it_PPH1 also_RR serves_VVZ to_TO reinforce_VVI our_APPGE grasp_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC to_TO provide_VVI in_RR21 part_RR22 an_AT1 explanation_NN1 for_IF some_DD of_IO the_AT problems_NN2 now_RT associated_VVN with_IW government_NN1 ._. 
POLITICAL_JJ CULTURE_NN1 AND_CC CONTEMPORARY_JJ PROBLEMS_NN2 From_II the_AT foregoing_JJ sketch_NN1 one_PN1 can_VM recognize_VVI not_XX only_RR the_AT features_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 outlined_VVN in_II the_AT preceding_JJ chapter_NN1 but_CCB also_RR the_AT convergence_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 features_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE interplay_NN1 with_IW the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO history_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 to_TO change_VVI and_CC a_AT1 conditional_JJ relationship_NN1 between_II governors_NN2 and_CC governed_VVN are_VBR long-standing_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
Clearly_RR ,_, government_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN shaped_VVN by_II no_AT grand_JJ design_NN1 ._. 
Change_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN piecemeal_JJ and_CC largely_RR incremental_JJ ._. 
Although_CS the_AT governed_JJ have_VH0 been_VBN largely_RR prepared_VVN to_TO defer_VVI to_II those_DD2 in_II power_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE deference_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN conditional_JJ ._. 
If_CS presumed_JJ rights_NN2 and_CC privileges_NN2 were_VBDR ignored_VVN or_CC dispensed_VVN with_IW ,_, the_AT appropriate_JJ action_NN1 was_VBDZ taken_VVN to_TO restore_VVI them_PPHO2 (_( e.g._REX the_AT Magna_NN121 Carta_NN122 ,_, the_AT beheading_NN1 of_IO Charles_NP1 I_MC1 )_) ._. 
The_AT other_JJ orientations_NN2 can_VM be_VBI identified_VVN from_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO reform_NN1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD and_CC early_JJ twentieth_MD centuries_NNT2 ._. 
History_NN1 and_CC Political_JJ Culture_NN1 The_AT reforms_NN2 of_IO the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 were_VBDR facilitated_VVN not_XX only_RR by_II an_AT1 empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 to_TO change_VVI but_CCB also_RR by_II the_AT paternalism_NN1 of_IO political_JJ leaders_NN2 ._. 
Noblesse_NN121 oblige_NN122 (_( privilege_NN1 entails_VVZ responsibility_NN1 )_) is_VBZ a_AT1 foreign_JJ phase_NN1 but_CCB it_PPH1 embodies_VVZ a_AT1 very_RG British_JJ concept_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 's_GE aristocratic_JJ leaders_NN2 believed_VVD that_CST they_PPHS2 had_VHD a_AT1 duty_NN1 to_TO help_VVI improve_VVI the_AT condition_NN1 of_IO the_AT working_JJ man_NN1 ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 should_VM not_XX be_VBI overemphasized_VVN ,_, since_CS on_II occasion_NN1 this_DD1 sense_NN1 of_IO duty_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX so_RG much_RR a_AT1 cause_NN1 of_IO action_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 post_JJ21 hoc_JJ22 justification_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ important_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 combined_VVD with_IW need_NN1 (_( to_TO avoid_VVI social_JJ unrest_NN1 )_) and_CC political_JJ expediency_NN1 (_( to_TO steal_VVI the_AT thunder_NN1 of_IO one_PN1 's_GE opponents_NN2 )_) to_TO produce_VVI franchise_NN1 extension_NN1 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, change_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR easily_RR accommodated_VVN as_CSA political_JJ relationships_NN2 changes_NN2 ._. 
By_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT hegemony_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 in_II the_AT political_JJ process_NN1 ensured_VVD that_CST measures_NN2 could_VM be_VBI carried_VVN through_II Parliament_NN1 without_IW too_RG much_DA1 difficulty_NN1 ._. 
Equally_RR important_JJ ,_, once_RR approved_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, reforms_NN2 were_VBDR accepted_VVN by_II the_AT populace_NN1 and_CC by_II those_DD2 at_II whom_PNQO they_PPHS2 were_VBDR directed_VVN ._. 
The_AT widening_NN1 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP reform_NN1 ,_, and_CC votes_NN2 for_IF women_NN2 in_II the_AT twentieth_MD these_DD2 are_VBR issues_NN2 that_CST aroused_VVD great_JJ emotion_NN1 and_CC were_VBDR fiercely_RR opposed_VVN but_CCB on_II which_DDQ reform_NN1 was_VBDZ accepted_VVN once_RR the_AT government_NN1 of_IO the_AT day_NNT1 had_VHD got_VVN the_AT measure_NN1 accepted_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 in_RR21 part_RR22 reflects_VVZ the_AT orientation_NN1 toward_II cooperation_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 also_RR may_VM be_VBI seen_VVN as_II the_AT product_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 allegiant_JJ orientation_NN1 to_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT widening_NN1 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 extended_VVD the_AT input_NN1 of_IO citizens_NN2 into_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT passage_NN1 of_IO measures_NN2 of_IO social_JJ and_CC economic_JJ reform_NN1 appeared_VVD to_TO be_VBI meeting_VVG their_APPGE needs_NN2 ._. 
Equally_RR important_JJ ,_, Britons_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN taught_VVN that_CST the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 works_VVZ ._. 
Although_CS the_AT media_NN of_IO political_JJ socialization_NN1 have_VH0 changed_VVN over_II time_NNT1 ,_, the_AT content_NN1 has_VHZ not_XX ._. 
There_EX has_VHZ been_VBN an_AT1 emphasis_NN1 on_RP ,_, and_CC lauding_NN1 of_IO ,_, the_AT continuity_NN1 and_CC stability_NN1 ._. 
Historically_RR ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, the_AT country_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN rent_VVN by_II various_JJ upheavals_NN2 ,_, sometimes_RT of_IO a_AT1 quite_RG violent_JJ nature_NN1 ._. 
The_AT English_JJ Civil_JJ War_NN1 was_VBDZ far_RG21 from_RG22 bloodless_JJ ._. 
The_AT opinion_NN1 of_IO foreigners_NN2 ,_, wrote_VVD an_AT1 English_JJ scholar_NN1 in_II 1704_MC ,_, is_VBZ &quot;_" that_CST there_EX have_VH0 been_VBN more_DAR shakes_NN2 and_CC convulsions_NN2 in_II the_AT government_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 than_CSN in_II that_DD1 of_IO any_DD other_JJ nation_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" There_EX have_VH0 been_VBN various_JJ shakes_NN2 since_CS social_JJ ,_, economic_JJ ,_, and_CC political_JJ ._. 
In_II the_AT popular_JJ mind_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, such_DA convulsions_NN2 have_VH0 not_XX figures_NN2 largely_RR ._. 
&quot;_" What_DDQ makes_VVZ the_AT history_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 so_RG eminently_RR valuable_JJ ,_, &quot;_" wrote_VVD T._NP1 H._NP1 Buckle_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" is_VBZ that_CST nowhere_RL else_RR has_VHZ the_AT national_JJ progress_NN1 been_VBN so_RG little_RR interfered_VVN with_IW ,_, either_RR for_IF good_JJ or_CC evil_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" British_JJ government_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN accepted_VVN as_II the_AT product_NN1 of_IO the_AT collected_JJ wisdom_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 generations_NN2 ,_, indeed_RR of_IO many_DA2 centuries_NNT2 ._. 
It_PPH1 flatters_VVZ the_AT British_JJ mind_NN1 ,_, and_CC certainly_RR the_AT English_JJ mind_NN1 ,_, to_TO look_VVI upon_II it_PPH1 as_II the_AT envy_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Constitution_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN lauded_VVN as_II &quot;_" a_AT1 living_JJ organism_NN1 in_II a_AT1 condition_NN1 of_IO perpetual_JJ growth_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" George_NP1 III_MC described_VVD it_PPH1 as_II &quot;_" the_AT most_RGT perfect_JJ of_IO human_JJ formations_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Only_RR recently_RR ,_, in_II 1981_MC ,_, one_MC1 member_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 declared_VVD that_CST ,_, distinguished_VVN from_II other_JJ constitutions_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" our_APPGE constitution_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT envy_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT virtues_NN2 of_IO the_AT Westminster_NP1 model_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 have_VH0 been_VBN widely_RR extolled_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 became_VVD embodied_VVN in_II what_DDQ was_VBDZ taught_VVN in_II British_JJ schools_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 became_VVD part_NN1 of_IO received_JJ wisdom_NN1 ,_, and_CC to_II some_DD extent_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 remain_VV0 so_RR ._. 
The_AT British_JJ have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN alone_JJ in_II such_DA teaching_NN1 ._. 
British_JJ parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 has_VHZ found_VVN its_APPGE admirers_NN2 abroad_RL as_RR21 well_RR22 ,_, and_CC not_XX least_RRT in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
Especially_RR in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 and_CC 1960s_MC2 ,_, the_AT capacity_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 in_II government_NN1 to_TO enact_VVI a_AT1 party_NN1 program_NN1 was_VBDZ compared_VVN with_IW the_AT brokered_JJ politics_NN1 of_IO the_AT American_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 comparison_NN1 that_CST generated_VVD some_DD calls_NN2 for_IF reform_NN1 ;_; most_DAT notable_JJ among_II these_DD2 was_VBDZ James_NP1 MacGregor_NP1 Burns_NP1 in_II The_AT Deadlock_NN1 of_IO Democracy_NN1 published_VVN in_II 1963_MC ,_, arguing_VVG the_AT case_NN1 essentially_RR for_IF the_AT equivalent_JJ in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 of_IO a_AT1 &quot;_" responsible_JJ party_NN1 system_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Such_DA calls_NN2 were_VBDR to_TO extend_VVI into_II the_AT following_JJ decade_NNT1 ._. 
Charles_NP1 Hardin_NP1 cited_VVD British_JJ experience_NN1 in_II contending_VVG that_DD1 &quot;_" party_NN1 government_NN1 if_CS it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI attained_VVN provides_VVZ the_AT best_RRT hope_VV0 that_CST our_APPGE government_NN1 will_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO meet_VVI its_APPGE problems_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" Although_CS not_XX all_DB observers_NN2 wished_VVD to_TO emulate_VVI British_JJ experience_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE analyses_NN2 appeared_VVD edged_VVN with_IW a_AT1 touch_NN1 of_IO envy_NN1 ._. 
In_II more_RGR recent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, such_DA perceptions_NN2 have_VH0 waned_VVN ._. 
In_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, conditions_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 began_VVD to_TO change_VVI ._. 
Economic_JJ indicators_NN2 worsened_VVD considerably_RR ,_, and_CC unemployment_NN1 rose_VVD dramatically_RR (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 )_) ._. 
By_II 1973_MC ,_, Britain_NP1 had_VHD the_AT lowest_JJT growth_NN1 rate_NN1 of_IO the_AT major_JJ industrialized_JJ nations_NN2 ._. 
Between_II 1974_MC and_CC 1978_MC there_EX was_VBDZ an_AT1 annual_JJ rate_NN1 of_IO increase_NN1 in_II retail_JJ prices_NN2 in_II31 excess_II32 of_II33 17%_NNU ._. 
Industrial_JJ disputes_NN2 became_VVD more_RGR serious_JJ :_: there_EX were_VBDR more_RGR working_JJ days_NNT2 lost_VVN through_II such_DA disputes_NN2 in_II the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1970_MC to_II 1978_MC than_CSN there_EX were_VBDR in_II the_AT whole_NN1 of_IO the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1946_MC to_II 1969_MC ._. 
In_II less_DAR than_CSN 30_MC years_NNT2 ,_, the_AT British_JJ economy_NN1 had_VHD declined_VVN from_II being_VBG one_MC1 of_IO the_AT strongest_JJT to_II one_MC1 of_IO the_AT weakest_JJT in_II Europe_NP1 ._. 
Successive_JJ governments_NN2 encountered_VVN problems_NN2 in_II responding_VVG to_II the_AT changed_JJ conditions_NN2 and_CC in_II raising_VVG resources_NN2 to_TO meet_VVI public_JJ expectations_NN2 ._. 
Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ overshadowed_VVN by_II a_AT1 body_NN1 of_IO which_DDQ ,_, until_CS 1973_MC ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ not_XX a_AT1 member_NN1 the_AT European_JJ Communities_NN2 ._. 
Government_NN1 was_VBDZ increasingly_RR constrained_VVN by_II the_AT activities_NN2 of_IO economically_RR powerful_JJ groups_NN2 ,_, both_RR at_II home_NN1 and_CC abroad_RL (_( notably_RR ,_, in_II the_AT latter_DA case_NN1 ,_, the_AT International_JJ Monetary_JJ Fund_NN1 )_) ._. 
Although_CS parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 did_VDD not_XX cease_VVI to_TO work_VVI ,_, it_PPH1 no_RR21 longer_RR22 appeared_VVD to_TO be_VBI working_VVG in_II the_AT way_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 had_VHD in_II the_AT past_NN1 ._. 
The_AT positive_JJ picture_NN1 of_IO British_JJ government_NN1 began_VVD to_TO lose_VVI its_APPGE gloss_NN1 ;_; academics_NN2 who_PNQS had_VHD previously_RR written_VVN about_II the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 in_II positive_JJ terms_NN2 now_RT turned_VVD their_APPGE attention_NN1 to_II the_AT problem_NN1 inherent_JJ in_II that_DD1 system_NN1 ._. 
British_JJ parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 began_VVD to_TO assume_VVI the_AT status_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 rejected_JJ lover_NN1 ._. 
Contemporary_JJ Ills_NN2 and_CC Analyses_VVZ The_AT diagnoses_NN2 of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE problems_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN as_RG varied_JJ as_CSA the_AT problems_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. 
Some_DD diagnoses_NN2 are_VBR primarily_RR economic_JJ ._. 
A_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO economists_NN2 have_VH0 placed_VVN some_DD of_IO the_AT blame_NN1 for_IF poor_JJ economic_JJ performance_NN1 on_II a_AT1 failure_NN1 to_TO modernize_VVI (_( there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO retain_VVI old_JJ plants_NN2 and_CC to_TO support_VVI traditional_JJ but_CCB declining_JJ industries_NN2 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 textiles_NN2 )_) ;_; on_II the_AT emphasis_NN1 given_VVN to_II maintaining_VVG a_AT1 balance_NN1 of_IO payments_NN2 surplus_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO fund_VVI overseas_JJ military_JJ spending_NN1 and_CC foreign_JJ investments_NN2 ,_, pursued_VVN at_II the_AT expense_NN1 of_IO economic_JJ growth_NN1 ,_, and_CC on_II a_AT1 failure_NN1 of_IO postwar_JJ economic_JJ management_NN1 to_TO manipulate_VVI supply_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 demand_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 have_VH0 stressed_VVN the_AT legacies_NN2 of_IO former_DA international_JJ glory_NN1 ,_, attitudes_NN2 ,_, and_CC institutions_NN2 derived_VVN from_II the_AT days_NNT2 when_RRQ Britain_NP1 was_VBDZ at_II the_AT center_NN1 of_IO the_AT world_NN1 economy_NN1 ,_, acting_VVG as_II a_AT1 barrier_NN1 to_II necessary_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD diagnoses_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN primarily_RR sociological_JJ ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN (_( Chapter_NN1 1_MC1 )_) ,_, class_NN1 did_VDD not_XX displace_VVI status_NN1 in_II British_JJ society_NN1 ._. 
Preindustrial_JJ aristocratic_JJ attitudes_NN2 were_VBDR carried_VVN over_RP into_II an_AT1 industrial_JJ age_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 attitudes_NN2 included_VVD looking_VVG down_RP on_II the_AT pursuit_NN1 of_IO trade_NN1 and_CC commerce_NN1 as_CSA somewhat_RR inferior_JJ socially_RR ._. 
Low_JJ priority_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN to_II industry_NN1 and_CC science_NN1 and_CC ,_, so_CS the_AT analysis_NN1 goes_VVZ ,_, a_AT1 tendency_NN1 grew_VVD for_IF those_DD2 with_IW wealth_NN1 and_CC some_DD ability_NN1 to_TO avoid_VVI management_NN1 in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 professional_JJ pursuits_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT law_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD blame_NN1 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN imputed_VVN to_II the_AT egalitarianism_NN1 of_IO the_AT labor_NN1 movement_NN1 ,_, harboring_VVG dislike_NN1 of_IO profits_NN2 and_CC risk-taking_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT values_NN2 of_IO thrift_NN1 and_CC self-reliance_NN1 that_CST underpin_VV0 the_AT operation_NN1 of_IO the_AT free_JJ market_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, the_AT attitudes_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT social_JJ elite_NN1 and_CC the_AT labor_NN1 movement_NN1 have_VH0 served_VVN to_TO hinder_VVI economic_JJ growth_NN1 ._. 
The_AT other_JJ diagnoses_NN2 are_VBR essentially_RR political_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR important_JJ in_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO later_JJR chapters_NN2 and_CC hence_RR deserve_VV0 some_DD attention_NN1 ._. 
The_AT historical_JJ background_NN1 provided_VVN in_II this_DD1 chapter_NN1 helps_VVZ us_PPIO2 understand_VVI some_DD of_IO these_DD2 diagnoses_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 some_DD of_IO the_AT prescriptions_NN2 ._. 
The_AT three_MC main_JJ diagnoses_NN2 are_VBR those_DD2 of_IO government_NN1 overload_NN1 ,_, adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 ,_, and_CC pluralist_JJ stagnation_NN1 ._. 
Prescriptions_NN2 have_VH0 included_VVN decentralization_NN1 ,_, electoral_JJ reform_NN1 and_CC more_RGR radical_JJ economic_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT thesis_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 overload_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST as_II the_AT responsibilities_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 have_VH0 increased_VVN ,_, its_APPGE capacity_NN1 to_TO meet_VVI them_PPHO2 has_VHZ decreased_VVN :_: the_AT combination_NN1 of_IO these_DD2 two_MC features_NN2 has_VHZ resulted_VVN in_II an_AT1 overloading_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 government_NN1 White_JJ Paper_NN1 in_II 1970_MC declared_VVD that_DD1 government_NN1 had_VHD been_VBN attempting_VVG to_TO do_VDI too_RG much_DA1 ._. 
&quot;_" This_DD1 has_VHZ placed_VVN an_AT1 excessive_JJ burden_NN1 on_II industry_NN1 ,_, and_CC on_II the_AT people_NN of_IO the_AT country_NN1 as_II a_AT1 whole_NN1 ,_, and_CC has_VHZ also_RR over-loaded_VVN the_AT government_NN1 machine_NN1 itself_PPX1 ..._... 
The_AT weakness_NN1 has_VHZ shown_VVN itself_PPX1 in_II the_AT apparatus_NN1 of_IO policy_NN1 formulation_NN1 and_CC in_II the_AT quality_NN1 of_IO many_DA2 government_NN1 decisions_NN2 over_II the_AT past_JJ 25_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
&quot;_" Some_DD writers_NN2 have_VH0 argued_VVN that_CST the_AT problem_NN1 of_IO overload_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN made_VVN worse_RRR by_II the_AT centralization_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 decision-making_NN1 ._. 
Centralized_JJ government_NN1 ,_, so_CS the_AT argument_NN1 goes_VVZ ,_, has_VHZ proved_VVN too_RG large_JJ and_CC too_RG far_RR removed_VVN from_II the_AT problems_NN2 with_IW which_DDQ it_PPH1 seeks_VVZ to_TO cope_VVI ._. 
Distance_NN1 from_II those_DD2 affected_VVN by_II government_NN1 decisions_NN2 has_VHZ had_VHN the_AT effect_NN1 of_IO increasing_VVG their_APPGE indifference_NN1 and_CC sense_NN1 of_IO alienation_NN1 ,_, especially_RR in_II the_AT economically_RR disadvantaged_JJ regions_NN2 furthest_RRT from_II London_NP1 ._. 
Government_NN1 ,_, according_II21 to_II22 the_AT Royal_JJ Commission_NN1 on_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 in_II 1973_MC ,_, was_VBDZ viewed_VVN as_CSA being_VBG too_RG remote_JJ ._. 
A_AT1 compatible_JJ but_CCB independent_JJ thesis_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 contends_VVZ that_CST attempts_VVZ to_TO generate_VVI institutions_NN2 capable_JJ of_IO dealing_VVG with_IW Britain_NP1 's_GE long-term_JJ economic_JJ problems_NN2 are_VBR thwarted_VVN by_II a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 that_CST encourages_VVZ an_AT1 adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC main_JJ political_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, one_PN1 that_CST enables_VVZ them_PPHO2 to_TO alternate_VVI in_II office_NN1 so_CS21 that_CS22 each_DD1 undoes_VVZ the_AT work_NN1 of_IO the_AT other_JJ ._. 
The_AT consequence_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN ,_, is_VBZ policy_NN1 discontinuity_NN1 ,_, making_VVG it_PPH1 difficult_JJ if_CS not_XX impossible_JJ for_IF industrialists_NN2 and_CC investors_NN2 to_TO plan_VVI ahead_RL ._. 
The_AT adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 also_RR encourages_VVZ a_AT1 constant_JJ escalation_NN1 of_IO promises_NN2 by_II the_AT parties_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 seeking_VVG to_TO out-promise_VVI the_AT other_JJ in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO win_VVI the_AT all-or-nothing_JJ spoils_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 victory_NN1 ._. 
When_RRQ ,_, as_CSA happened_VVN in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, the_AT resources_NN2 are_VBR no_RR21 longer_RR22 available_JJ to_TO meet_VVI the_AT promises_NN2 made_VVD ,_, disenchantment_NN1 with_IW the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 begins_VVZ to_TO develop_VVI ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT parties_NN2 are_VBR unable_JK to_TO respond_VVI adequately_RR to_II such_DA developments_NN2 because_II21 of_II22 an_AT1 unwillingness_NN1 to_TO tamper_VVI with_IW a_AT1 system_NN1 that_CST works_VVZ to_II their_APPGE mutual_JJ advantage_NN1 ._. 
In_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, Britain_NP1 has_VHZ a_AT1 political_JJ system_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ malfunctional_JJ and_CC not_XX amenable_JJ to_II radical_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
Pluralist_JJ stagnation_NN1 suggests_VVZ that_CST the_AT problem_NN1 lies_VVZ with_IW the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO groups_NN2 in_II British_JJ society_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 group_NN1 pursuing_VVG its_APPGE own_DA interest_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 groups_NN2 have_VH0 brought_VVN pressure_NN1 to_TO bear_VVI on_II government_NN1 to_TO provide_VVI resources_NN2 or_CC pursue_VV0 policies_NN2 to_II the_AT benefit_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE members_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT economic_JJ leverage_NN1 of_IO some_DD groups_NN2 that_CST the_AT role_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN increasingly_RR one_MC1 of_IO arbiter_NN1 between_II the_AT demands_NN2 of_IO groups_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 one_MC1 of_IO policy_NN1 leader_NN1 ._. 
The_AT tendency_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 to_TO wish_VVI to_TO avoid_VVI conflict_NN1 has_VHZ resulted_VVN in_II political_JJ inertia_NN1 ,_, government_NN1 being_VBG unwilling_JJ to_TO pursue_VVI policies_NN2 that_CST would_VM generate_VVI sustained_JJ opposition_NN1 from_II well-entrenched_JJ groups_NN2 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN made_VVN worse_RRR ,_, according_II21 to_II22 Samuel_NP1 Beer_NN1 ,_, by_II the_AT numerical_JJ growth_NN1 of_IO such_DA groups_NN2 ._. 
Because_CS there_EX are_VBR so_RG many_DA2 ,_, self-restraint_NN1 in_II making_VVG demands_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 would_VM bring_VVI no_AT discernible_JJ benefit_NN1 to_II any_DD one_MC1 group_NN1 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, even_CS21 though_CS22 recognizing_VVG the_AT need_NN1 for_IF restraint_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 group_NN1 is_VBZ tempted_VVN to_TO raise_VVI its_APPGE own_DA claims_NN2 ._. 
Other_JJ groups_NN2 then_RT compete_VV0 to_TO raise_VVI theirs_PPGE ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT source_NN1 of_IO the_AT problem_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" argues_VVZ Beer_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" is_VBZ not_XX a_AT1 lack_NN1 of_IO knowledge_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT structure_NN1 of_IO the_AT situation_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ continues_VVZ to_TO have_VHI compelling_JJ force_NN1 even_CS21 when_CS22 participants_NN2 recognise_VV0 its_APPGE tendencies_NN2 ._. 
Their_APPGE numerical_JJ pluralism_NN1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 difficult_JJ ,_, if_CS not_XX impossible_JJ ,_, to_TO make_VVI and_CC enforce_VVI a_AT1 bargain_NN1 ,_, tacit_JJ or_CC explicit_JJ ,_, that_DD1 would_VM achieve_VVI moderation_NN1 ._. 
If_CS there_EX were_VBDR only_RR a_AT1 few_DA2 ,_, each_DD1 could_VM know_VVI what_DDQ the_AT others_NN2 were_VBDR doing_VDG and_CC all_DB would_VM be_VBI aware_JJ of_IO being_VBG watched_VVN ._. 
But_CCB pluralism_NN1 destroys_VVZ the_AT basis_NN1 for_IF such_DA a_AT1 self-enforcing_JJ social_JJ contract_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" For_IF government_NN1 the_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ thus_RR an_AT1 acute_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ fewer_DAR benefits_NN2 to_TO dispense_VVI than_CSN previously_RR ,_, yet_RR is_VBZ faced_VVN with_IW a_AT1 plethora_NN1 of_IO interests_NN2 ,_, each_DD1 of_IO which_DDQ is_VBZ unwilling_JJ to_TO moderate_VVI its_APPGE demands_NN2 in_II the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO all_DB ._. 
These_DD2 constitute_VV0 the_AT main_JJ political_JJ analyses_NN2 that_CST see_VV0 the_AT problem_NN1 as_II a_AT1 structural_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR others_NN2 that_CST do_VD0 not_XX see_VVI it_PPH1 as_RG structural_JJ ._. 
The_AT two_MC largest_JJT parties_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, the_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, view_NN1 Britain_NP1 's_GE problems_NN2 as_CSA stemming_VVG from_II the_AT pursuit_NN1 in_II the_AT past_NN1 of_IO inadequate_JJ policies_NN2 (_( Chapter_NN1 6_MC )_) ._. 
There_EX are_VBR other_JJ analyses_NN2 that_CST go_VV0 beyond_II the_AT structural_JJ or_CC policy_NN1 analyses_NN2 ,_, providing_VVG somewhat_RR more_RGR complex_JJ explanations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT important_JJ of_IO these_DD2 is_VBZ that_CST provided_VVD by_II Professor_NNB Beer_NP1 in_II his_APPGE recent_JJ work_NN1 Britain_NP1 Against_II Itself_PPX1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 argues_VVZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT single_JJ causal_JJ explanation_NN1 for_IF Britain_NP1 's_GE decline_NN1 ;_; rather_RR ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ to_TO be_VBI seen_VVN as_CSA resulting_VVG from_II a_AT1 convergence_NN1 of_IO pluralist_JJ stagnation_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 decline_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 ,_, and_CC a_AT1 revolt_NN1 against_II authority_NN1 ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN fragmentation_NN1 in_II political_JJ life_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT outcome_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN incoherence_NN1 and_CC immobilism_NN1 ;_; drift_VV0 ,_, not_XX mastery_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX hyperbole_NN1 to_TO call_VVI it_PPH1 a_AT1 paralysis_NN1 of_IO public_JJ choice_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" I_PPIS1 shall_VM return_VVI to_II these_DD2 analyses_NN2 in_II appropriate_JJ chapters_NN2 ,_, responding_VVG in_RR21 particular_RR22 to_II Beer_NN1 's_GE sophisticated_JJ analysis_NN1 in_II the_AT conclusion_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT moment_NN1 ,_, two_MC concluding_JJ points_NN2 need_VV0 to_TO be_VBI made_VVN ._. 
The_AT first_MD ,_, rather_RG obviously_RR ,_, is_VBZ that_DD1 no_AT one_MC1 approach_NN1 is_VBZ without_IW its_APPGE detractors_NN2 ._. 
Each_DD1 approach_NN1 has_VHZ its_APPGE limitations_NN2 and_CC these_DD2 I_PPIS1 shall_VM seek_VVI to_TO draw_VVI out_RP at_II appropriate_JJ points_NN2 in_II the_AT text_NN1 ._. 
The_AT second_MD equally_RR obvious_JJ point_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST ,_, given_VVN the_AT disparate_JJ analyses_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO prescriptions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN offered_VVN for_IF dealing_VVG with_IW the_AT presumed_JJ causes_NN2 of_IO the_AT nation_NN1 's_GE ills_NN2 ._. 
Exponents_NN2 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 overload_NN1 thesis_NN1 tend_VV0 to_TO favor_VVI reform_NN1 of_IO central_JJ government_NN1 machinery_NN1 and_CC decentralization_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
Those_DD2 who_PNQS adhere_VV0 to_II the_AT adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 thesis_NN1 support_NN1 ,_, for_IF reasons_NN2 that_CST will_VM be_VBI explained_VVN later_RRR ,_, a_AT1 reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
Pluralist_JJ stagnation_NN1 ,_, according_II21 to_II22 Beer_NN1 's_GE analysis_NN1 ,_, can_VM be_VBI overcome_VVN only_RR by_II mobilizing_VVG popular_JJ consent_NN1 through_II restoring_JJ trust_NN1 in_II government_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ parties_NN2 the_AT answer_NN1 lies_VVZ in_II (_( different_JJ )_) radical_JJ economic_JJ policies_NN2 ._. 
So_RR wide_JJ are_VBR the_AT analyses_NN2 and_CC the_AT prescriptions_NN2 that_CST one_PN1 is_VBZ tempted_VVN to_TO wonder_VVI whether_CSW the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO pluralist_JJ stagnation_NN1 might_VM itself_PPX1 be_VBI applied_VVN to_II the_AT political_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE ills_NN2 ._. 
My_APPGE own_DA argument_NN1 I_PPIS1 will_VM draw_VVI together_RL in_II the_AT conclusion_NN1 ._. 
For_IF the_AT moment_NN1 ,_, suffice_VV0 it_PPH1 to_TO say_VVI that_CST I_PPIS1 take_VV0 a_AT1 skeptical_JJ view_NN1 of_IO the_AT structural_JJ analyses_NN2 offered_VVD ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR unproven_VVN and_CC overexaggerated_VVN and_CC they_PPHS2 miss_VV0 the_AT essential_JJ point_NN1 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX primarily_RR a_AT1 structural_JJ one_PN1 structures_VVZ are_VBR dependent_JJ variables_NN2 ._. 
The_AT independent_JJ variable_NN1 on_II which_DDQ one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO focus_VVI is_VBZ the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 may_VM have_VHI helped_VVN generate_VVI problems_NN2 of_IO political_JJ structure_NN1 ,_, but_CCB Britain_NP1 's_GE problems_NN2 ,_, I_PPIS1 will_VM argue_VVI ,_, are_VBR not_XX essentially_RR political_JJ :_: they_PPHS2 are_VBR economic_JJ and_CC social_JJ ._. 
And_CC the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 is_VBZ one_PN1 that_CST provides_VVZ government_NN1 with_IW the_AT breathing_NN1 space_NN1 necessary_JJ to_TO address_VVI itself_PPX1 to_II those_DD2 problems_NN2 ._. 
Government_NN1 may_VM not_XX succeed_VVI ,_, but_CCB the_AT opportunity_NN1 is_VBZ there_RL and_CC in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO understand_VVI that_CST one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO understand_VVI the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 and_CC the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 endures_VVZ ._. 
The_AT decline_NN1 in_II the_AT culture_NN1 detected_VVN by_II Beer_NN1 is_VBZ relative_JJ ._. 
The_AT orientations_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ culture_NN1 identified_VVN in_II the_AT preceding_JJ chapter_NN1 remain_VV0 ._. 
I_PPIS1 concluded_VVD that_DD1 chapter_NN1 by_II suggesting_VVG that_CST the_AT important_JJ question_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX &quot;_" why_RRQ had_VHD there_EX been_VBN a_AT1 decline_NN1 in_II the_AT civic_JJ culture_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" but_CCB rather_RR &quot;_" why_RRQ had_VHD that_DD1 decline_NN1 not_XX been_VBN greater_JJR ?_? 
&quot;_" The_AT answer_NN1 to_II that_DD1 question_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT implications_NN2 of_IO it_PPH1 for_IF the_AT British_JJ polity_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1980s_MC2 ,_, will_VM form_VVI the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT final_JJ chapter_NN1 ._. 
My_APPGE conclusion_NN1 will_VM not_XX necessarily_RR be_VBI an_AT1 optimistic_JJ one_PN1 it_PPH1 will_VM emphasize_VVI potential_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 expectation_NN1 but_CCB it_PPH1 will_VM lack_VVI the_AT negative_JJ connotations_NN2 attached_VVN to_II the_AT foregoing_JJ analyses_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 will_VM also_RR forgo_VVI structural_JJ change_NN1 as_II the_AT primary_JJ prescriptions_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ is_VBZ important_JJ is_VBZ attitudes_NN2 ,_, not_XX structures_NN2 ._. 
THE_AT UNCODIFIED_JJ CONSTITUTION_NN1 A_ZZ1 CONSTITUTION_NN1 MAY_VM BE_VBI DEFINED_VVN as_II a_AT1 body_NN1 of_IO laws_NN2 ,_, customs_NN2 ,_, and_CC conventions_NN2 that_CST define_VV0 the_AT composition_NN1 and_CC powers_NN2 of_IO organs_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC that_CST regulate_VV0 the_AT relations_NN2 of_IO the_AT various_JJ state_NN1 organs_NN2 to_II one_PPX121 another_PPX122 and_CC to_II the_AT private_JJ citizen_NN1 ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 has_VHZ a_AT1 constitution_NN1 ;_; so_RR does_VDZ the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ._. 
Expressed_VVN in_II purely_RR formal_JJ terms_NN2 (_( Table_NN1 4.1_MC )_) there_EX is_VBZ very_RG little_DA1 similarity_NN1 between_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, the_AT differences_NN2 are_VBR such_CS21 that_CS22 to_II the_AT student_NN1 weaned_VVD on_II a_AT1 study_NN1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 ,_, the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ nearly_RR incomprehensible_JJ ._. 
Even_RR to_II the_AT student_NN1 of_IO British_JJ politics_NN1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX well_RR understood_VVN ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, the_AT differences_NN2 should_VM not_XX be_VBI emphasized_VVN to_II the_AT exclusion_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ common_JJ features_NN2 ._. 
Both_DB2 Constitutions_NN2 are_VBR strong_JJ ones_NN2 in_CS21 that_CS22 they_PPHS2 reflect_VV0 and_CC reinforce_VV0 their_APPGE respective_JJ political_JJ cultures_NN2 ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ considered_VVN by_II Americans_NN2 to_TO embody_VVI the_AT principles_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 higher_JJR law_NN1 ,_, to_TO constitute_VVI &quot;_" in_II fact_NN1 imperfect_JJ man_NN1 's_GE most_RGT perfect_JJ rendering_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ Blackstone_NP1 saluted_VVD as_CSA &quot;_" the_AT eternal_JJ immutable_JJ laws_NN2 of_IO good_JJ and_CC evil_NN1 ,_, to_II which_DDQ the_AT creator_NN1 himself_PPX1 in_II all_DB his_APPGE dispensations_NN2 conforms_VVZ :_: and_CC which_DDQ he_PPHS1 has_VHZ enabled_VVN human_JJ reason_NN1 to_TO discover_VVI ,_, so_RG far_RR as_CSA they_PPHS2 are_VBR necessary_JJ for_IF the_AT conduct_NN1 of_IO human_JJ actions_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" As_II the_AT embodiment_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 higher_JJR law_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 thus_RR not_XX only_RR needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI distinguished_VVN from_II ordinary_JJ law_NN1 but_CCB also_RR needs_VVZ to_TO be_VBI protected_VVN from_II the_AT passing_JJ whims_NN2 of_IO politicians_NN2 hence_RR the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO extraordinary_JJ procedures_NN2 for_IF its_APPGE amendment_NN1 ._. 
By_II contrast_NN1 ,_, the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ admired_VVN by_II Britons_NN2 for_IF reflecting_VVG the_AT wisdom_NN1 of_IO past_JJ generations_NN2 ,_, as_CSA the_AT product_NN1 of_IO experience_NN1 in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, a_AT1 constitution_NN1 that_CST stipulates_VVZ what_DDQ should_VM be_VBI on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ has_VHZ proved_VVN to_TO work_VVI rather_II21 than_II22 on_II abstract_JJ first_MD principles_NN2 ._. 
The_AT empirical_JJ orientation_NN1 to_TO change_VVI that_CST underpins_VVZ such_DA a_AT1 constitution_NN1 also_RR favors_VVZ flexibility_NN1 in_II amendment_NN1 :_: as_CSA conditions_NN2 change_VV0 ,_, so_RR some_DD amendment_NN1 may_VM be_VBI necessary_JJ ._. 
Formal_JJ extraordinary_JJ procedures_NN2 for_IF its_APPGE amendment_NN1 have_VH0 not_XX been_VBN found_VVN necessary_JJ ._. 
The_AT differences_NN2 in_II political_JJ culture_NN1 have_VH0 thus_RR produced_VVN somewhat_RR different_JJ constitutions_NN2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT attachment_NN1 to_II them_PPHO2 is_VBZ similar_JJ in_II the_AT two_MC countries_NN2 ._. 
Also_RR ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, there_EX are_VBR certain_JJ similarities_NN2 in_II sources_NN2 in_II the_AT means_NN of_IO interpretation_NN1 ._. 
New_JJ nations_NN2 from_II the_AT eighteenth_MD century_NNT1 onward_RL have_VH0 found_VVN it_PPH1 both_RR necessary_JJ and_CC useful_JJ to_TO codify_VVI their_APPGE constitutions_NN2 ._. 
At_II the_AT time_NNT1 that_CST the_AT Founding_JJ Fathers_NN2 promulgated_VVN the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 in_II Philadelphia_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 written_JJ constitution_NN1 was_VBDZ exceptional_JJ ._. 
Today_RT it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT norm_NN1 ._. 
Having_VHG lacked_VVN the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO create_VVI a_AT1 new_JJ constitutional_JJ framework_NN1 afresh_RR from_II first_MD principles_NN2 ,_, Britain_NP1 now_RT stands_VVZ out_RP as_CSA one_MC1 of_IO the_AT few_DA2 nations_NN2 lacking_VVG such_DA a_AT1 document_NN1 ._. 
FORMS_NN2 OF_IO EXPRESSION_NN1 The_AT absence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 written_JJ constitution_NN1 similar_JJ to_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC other_JJ nations_NN2 has_VHZ led_VVN to_II the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 being_VBG described_VVN as_CSA unwritten_JJ ,_, but_CCB such_DA a_AT1 description_NN1 is_VBZ misleading_JJ ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, various_JJ elements_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 find_VV0 expression_NN1 in_II forma_NN1 ,_, written_JJ enactments_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ distinguishes_VVZ the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 from_II others_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ unwritten_JJ ,_, but_CCB rather_RR that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ part-written_JJ and_CC uncodified_JJ ._. 
The_AT lack_NN1 of_IO codification_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO especial_JJ importance_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 makes_VVZ it_PPH1 difficult_JJ to_TO identify_VVI clearly_RR and_CC authoritatively_RR what_DDQ constitute_VVI the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution._NP1 there_EX are_VBR certain_JJ principles_NN2 that_CST are_VBR clearly_RR at_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 being_VBG the_AT prime_JJ example_NN1 ,_, but_CCB there_EX are_VBR many_DA2 provisions_NN2 ,_, be_VBI they_PPHS2 expressed_VVN through_II statute_NN1 law_NN1 or_CC the_AT writings_NN2 of_IO constitutional_JJ experts_NN2 ,_, that_CST are_VBR of_IO constitutional_JJ significance_NN1 but_CCB on_II which_DDQ there_EX is_VBZ no_AT clear_JJ agreement_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 form_VV0 part_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 lack_NN1 of_IO codified_JJ certainty_NN1 that_CST makes_VVZ a_AT1 study_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 so_RG fraught_JJ with_IW difficulty_NN1 ._. 
Because_CS one_PN1 can_VM not_XX have_VHI recourse_NN1 to_II one_MC1 simple_JJ authoritative_JJ document_NN1 to_TO discover_VVI the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 has_VHZ instead_RR to_TO research_VVI four_MC separate_JJ sources_NN2 :_: statute_NN1 law_NN1 ,_, common_JJ law_NN1 ,_, conventions_NN2 ,_, and_CC works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA sources_NN2 are_VBR also_RR relevant_JJ in_II analyses_NN2 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 ._. 
Congress_NN1 may_VM pass_VVI measures_NN2 of_IO constitutional_JJ significance_NN1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, certain_JJ stipulations_NN2 of_IO electoral_JJ law_NN1 or_CC the_AT War_NN1 Powers_NN2 Act_NN1 ._. 
Provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 are_VBR developed_VVN and_CC molded_VVN by_II judicial_JJ decisions_NN2 ._. 
In_II seeking_VVG to_TO interpret_VVI the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, the_AT courts_NN2 may_VM have_VHI recourse_NN1 to_II works_NN by_II constitutional_JJ experts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT difference_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC countries_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST in_II Britain_NP1 such_DA sources_NN2 are_VBR primary_JJ sources_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, the_AT primary_JJ source_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT written_JJ document_NN1 ._. 
SOURCES_NN2 Of_IO the_AT four_MC sources_NN2 ,_, statute_NN1 law_NN1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR the_AT best_RRT understood_VVN and_CC nowadays_RT ,_, the_AT most_RGT extensive_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 provides_VVZ the_AT main_JJ source_NN1 for_IF the_AT part-written_JJ element_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 comprises_VVZ acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 and_CC subordinate_JJ legislation_NN1 made_VVN under_II the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO the_AT parent_NN1 act_NN1 ._. 
Many_DA2 acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 that_CST have_VH0 been_VBN passed_VVN clearly_RR merit_VV0 the_AT title_NN1 of_IO constitutional_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
Acts_VVZ that_CST define_VV0 the_AT powers_NN2 of_IO the_AT various_JJ state_NN1 organs_NN2 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT 1911_MC and_CC 1949_MC Parliament_NN1 Acts_VVZ )_) and_CC acts_VVZ that_CST define_VV0 the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II Crown_NN1 and_CC Parliament_NN1 (_( notably_RR the_AT Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 of_IO 1689_MC )_) ,_, between_II the_AT component_NN1 elements_NN2 of_IO the_AT nation_NN1 (_( the_AT Act_NN1 of_IO Union_NN1 with_IW Scotland_NP1 of_IO 1706_MC ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 )_) ,_, between_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 and_CC the_AT European_JJ Communities_NN2 (_( the_AT 1972_MC European_JJ Communities_NN2 Act_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC between_II the_AT state_NN1 and_CC the_AT individual_NN1 (_( as_CSA with_IW the_AT Habeas_NN121 Corpus_NN122 Act_NN1 of_IO 1679_MC or_CC the_AT Administration_NN1 of_IO Justice_NN1 Act_NN1 of_IO 1960_MC )_) clearly_RR constitute_VV0 important_JJ provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR published_VVN in_II authoritative_JJ ,_, written_JJ form_NN1 and_CC ,_, as_CSA acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ,_, are_VBR interpreted_VVN by_II the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT important_JJ of_IO the_AT four_MC sources_NN2 both_RR in_II quantitative_JJ and_CC qualitative_JJ terms_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ increasingly_RR displaced_VVN common_JJ law_NN1 as_II the_AT most_RGT extensive_JJ form_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 and_CC it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT most_RGT definitive_JJ of_IO the_AT four_MC ._. 
It_PPH1 takes_VVZ precedence_NN1 over_II any_DD conflicting_JJ common_JJ law_NN1 and_CC is_VBZ superior_JJ to_II the_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitutions_NN2 and_CC to_II works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 precedence_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ._. 
Common_JJ law_NN1 constitutes_VVZ the_AT law_NN1 and_CC customs_NN2 of_IO ancient_JJ lineage_NN1 that_CST have_VH0 been_VBN upheld_VVN as_CSA law_NN1 by_II the_AT courts_NN2 in_II cases_NN2 decided_VVN before_II them_PPHO2 ._. 
Once_RR a_AT1 court_NN1 has_VHZ upheld_VVN a_AT1 provision_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG part_NN1 of_IO common_JJ law_NN1 it_PPH1 creates_VVZ a_AT1 precedent_NN1 to_TO be_VBI followed_VVN by_II other_JJ courts_NN2 ._. 
In_II past_JJ centuries_NNT2 ,_, when_CS few_DA2 statutes_NN2 were_VBDR enacted_VVN ,_, common_JJ law_NN1 constituted_VVD the_AT main_JJ body_NN1 of_IO English_JJ law_NN1 ;_; today_RT ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN largely_RR but_CCB not_XX wholly_RR displaced_VVN by_II statute_NN1 law_NN1 ._. 
Certain_JJ principles_NN2 derived_VVN from_II common_JJ law_NN1 remain_VV0 fundamental_JJ to_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, and_CC these_DD2 include_VV0 the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ._. 
Under_II the_AT heading_NN1 of_IO common_JJ law_NN1 comes_VVZ also_RR prerogative_NN1 powers_VVZ the_AT powers_NN2 and_CC privileges_NN2 recognized_VVN by_II common_JJ law_NN1 as_CSA belonging_VVG to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS many_DA2 prerogative_NN1 powers_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN displaced_VVN by_II statute_NN1 ,_, many_DA2 matters_NN2 at_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 are_VBR still_RR determined_VVN under_II the_AT authority_NN1 of_IO the_AT prerogative_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 include_VV0 the_AT appointment_NN1 of_IO ministers_NN2 ,_, the_AT making_NN1 of_IO treaties_NN2 ,_, and_CC power_NN1 of_IO pardon_NN1 ,_, the_AT dispensing_NN1 of_IO honors_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT declaration_NN1 of_IO war_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, such_DA powers_NN2 are_VBR normally_RR exercised_VVN formally_RR by_II the_AT monarch_NN1 on_II the_AT advice_NN1 of_IO ministers_NN2 (_( the_AT ministers_NN2 ,_, in_II practice_NN1 ,_, take_VV0 the_AT decisions_NN2 )_) ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT formal_JJ requirement_NN1 that_CST Parliament_NN1 assent_NN1 to_II such_DA decisions_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ in_II stark_JJ contrast_NN1 to_II the_AT position_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, where_CS Congress_NN1 alone_RR has_VHZ the_AT formal_JJ power_NN1 to_TO declare_VVI war_NN1 and_CC the_AT Senate_NN1 's_GE consent_NN1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ for_IF the_AT ratification_NN1 of_IO treaties_NN2 and_CC the_AT appointment_NN1 of_IO federal_JJ public_JJ officers_NN2 ._. 
(_( In_II practice_NN1 ,_, the_AT differences_NN2 are_VBR not_XX that_RG great_JJ :_: &quot;_" presidential_JJ wars_NN2 &quot;_" have_VH0 been_VBN waged_VVN without_IW a_AT1 congressional_JJ declaration_NN1 of_IO war_NN1 ,_, while_CS in_II Britain_NP1 a_AT1 government_NN1 taking_VVG military_JJ action_NN1 abroad_RL will_VM seek_VVI the_AT consent_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. )_) 
In_II 1972_MC ,_, the_AT Treaty_NN1 of_IO Accession_NN1 to_II the_AT European_JJ Communities_NN2 was_VBDZ signed_VVN under_II prerogative_NN1 powers_NN2 ._. 
IN_II 1982_MC ,_, a_AT1 naval_JJ task_NN1 force_NN1 was_VBDZ despatched_VVN to_II the_AT Falkland_NP1 Islands_NNL2 under_II the_AT same_DA authority_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS diminishing_VVG in_II number_NN1 ,_, prerogative_NN1 powers_NN2 clearly_RR remain_VV0 of_IO great_JJ importance_NN1 ._. 
Generally_RR included_VVN under_II the_AT generic_JJ heading_NN1 of_IO common_JJ law_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT judicial_JJ interpretation_NN1 of_IO statute_NN1 law_NN1 ._. 
Unlike_II those_DD2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, British_JJ courts_NN2 have_VH0 no_AT power_NN1 to_TO hold_VVI a_AT1 measure_NN1 unconstitutional_JJ ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR limited_VVN to_II the_AT interpretation_NN1 of_IO provisions_NN2 of_IO acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Even_RR in_II exercising_VVG their_APPGE power_NN1 of_IO interpretations_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR limited_VVN by_II rules_NN2 of_IO interpretation_NN1 and_CC by_II precedent_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT exception_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP ,_, the_AT highest_JJT domestic_JJ court_NN1 of_IO appeal_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ not_XX now_RT bound_VVN by_II its_APPGE previous_JJ decisions_NN2 ._. )_) 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, judges_NN2 retain_VV0 the_AT power_NN1 to_TO distinguish_VVI cases_NN2 and_CC by_II their_APPGE interpretation_NN1 they_PPHS2 can_VM develop_VVI a_AT1 substantial_JJ body_NN1 of_IO case_NN1 law_NN1 ._. 
In_II interpreting_VVG acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 assume_VV0 Parliament_NN1 to_TO have_VHI meant_VVN what_DDQ ,_, on_II the_AT face_NN1 of_IO it_PPH1 ,_, the_AT words_NN2 of_IO an_AT1 act_NN1 appear_VV0 to_TO mean_VVI ._. 
Unlike_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Supreme_JJ Court_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ can_VM delve_VVI deep_RR into_II the_AT deliberations_NN2 of_IO the_AT Founding_JJ Fathers_NN2 to_TO try_VVI to_TO elucidate_VVI what_DDQ was_VBDZ meant_VVN by_II a_AT1 particular_JJ provision_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, British_JJ courts_NN2 are_VBR not_XX permitted_VVN to_TO look_VVI at_II the_AT proceedings_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO determine_VVI what_DDQ Parliament_NN1 really_RR meant_VVN ._. 
The_AT third_MD and_CC least_RGT tangible_JJ source_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO convention_NN1 ._. 
Conventions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 are_VBR most_RGT aptly_RR described_VVN as_II rules_NN2 that_CST are_VBR considered_VVN binding_VVG by_II and_CC upon_II those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR responsible_JJ for_IF making_VVG the_AT Constitution_NN1 work_NN1 ,_, but_CCB rules_VVZ that_CST are_VBR not_XX enforced_VVN by_II the_AT courts_NN2 or_CC by_II the_AT presiding_JJ officers_NN2 in_II either_DD1 house_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 derive_VV0 their_APPGE strength_NN1 from_II the_AT realization_NN1 that_CST not_XX to_TO abide_VVI by_II them_PPHO2 would_VM make_VVI for_IF an_AT1 unworkable_JJ constitution_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR ,_, so_RR to_TO speak_VVI ,_, the_AT oil_NN1 in_II the_AT forma_NN1 machinery_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 help_VV0 fill_VVI the_AT gap_NN1 between_II the_AT constitutional_JJ formality_NN1 and_CC the_AT political_JJ reality_NN1 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, ministers_NN2 are_VBR responsible_JJ formally_RR to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 ._. 
Because_II21 of_II22 the_AT political_JJ changes_NN2 wrought_VVN in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR by_II convention_NN1 responsible_JJ now_RT also_RR to_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, the_AT government_NN1 of_IO the_AT day_NNT1 resigns_VVZ or_CC requests_VVZ a_AT1 dissolution_NN1 if_CS a_AT1 motion_NN1 of_IO no_AT confidence_NN1 is_VBZ carried_VVN against_II it_PPH1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, the_AT monarch_NN1 gives_VVZ the_AT Royal_JJ Assent_NN1 to_II all_DB legislative_JJ measures_NN2 approved_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT last_MD time_NNT1 a_AT1 monarch_NN1 refused_VVD assent_NN1 was_VBDZ during_II the_AT reign_NN1 of_IO Queen_NNB Anne_NP1 (_( 1702-1714_MCMC )_) ._. 
Queen_NNB Victoria_NP1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 contemplated_VVD refusing_VVG her_APPGE assent_NN1 to_II a_AT1 measure_NN1 but_CCB wiser_JJR counsels_NN2 prevailed_VVD ._. 
No_AT formal_JJ ,_, authoritative_JJ documents_NN2 set_VV0 forth_RR these_DD2 rules_NN2 ,_, and_CC they_PPHS2 find_VV0 no_AT embodiment_NN1 in_II statute_NN1 law_NN1 ._. 
The_AT courts_NN2 may_VM recognize_VVI them_PPHO2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT courts_NN2 have_VH0 no_AT power_NN1 to_TO enforce_VVI them_PPHO2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR complied_VVN with_IW because_II21 of_II22 the_AT recognition_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ would_VM happen_VVI if_CSW they_PPHS2 were_VBDR not_XX complied_VVN with_IW ._. 
For_IF the_AT Queen_NN1 to_TO refuse_VVI her_APPGE assent_NN1 to_II a_AT1 measure_NN1 passed_VVN by_II the_AT two_MC Houses_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 would_VM draw_VVI her_PPHO1 into_II the_AT realms_NN2 of_IO political_JJ controversy_NN1 ,_, hence_RR jeopardizing_VVG the_AT claim_NN1 of_IO the_AT monarch_NN1 to_TO be_VBI &quot;_" above_JJ politics_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" A_AT1 government_NN1 that_CST sought_VVD to_TO remain_VVI in_II office_NN1 after_II losing_VVG a_AT1 vote_NN1 of_IO confidence_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP would_VM find_VVI its_APPGE position_NN1 politically_RR intenable_JJ :_: it_PPH1 would_VM lack_VVI the_AT political_JJ authority_NN1 to_TO govern_VVI ._. 
For_IF ministers_NN2 to_TO ignore_VVI Parliament_NN1 completely_RR would_VM prove_VVI equally_RR untenable_JJ ._. 
Some_DD conventions_NN2 may_VM be_VBI described_VVN as_II being_VBG stronger_JJR than_CSN others_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD on_II occasion_NN1 are_VBR breached_VVN ,_, while_CS others_NN2 are_VBR adhered_VVN to_II without_IW exception_NN1 ._. 
On_II three_MC occasions_NN2 in_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT convention_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ ministerial_JJ responsibility_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN suspended_VVN temporarily_RR by_II the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 of_IO the_AT day_NNT1 ._. 
In_II contrast_NN1 ,_, no_AT government_NN1 has_VHZ sought_VVN to_TO remain_VVI in_II office_NN1 after_II losing_VVG a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ vote_NN1 of_IO confidence_NN1 ._. 
The_AT point_NN1 at_II which_DDQ a_AT1 useful_JJ and_CC necessary_JJ practice_NN1 is_VBZ accorded_VVN the_AT status_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 constitutional_JJ convention_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX clear_JJ ._. 
Once_RR a_AT1 practice_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN well_RR established_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT relationship_NN1 within_RL or_CC between_II different_JJ organs_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ,_, finding_VVG recognition_NN1 in_II works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 and_CC by_II those_DD2 involved_JJ in_II its_APPGE operation_NN1 ,_, then_RT it_PPH1 may_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO have_VHI reached_VVN the_AT status_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 convention_NN1 ._. 
At_II any_DD one_MC1 time_NNT1 ,_, though_CS ,_, there_EX are_VBR a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO relationships_NN2 that_CST may_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO be_VBI in_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ haze_NN1 ._. 
Is_VBZ it_PPH1 a_AT1 convention_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 that_CST the_AT government_NN1 of_IO the_AT day_NNT1 must_VM consult_VVI with_IW interested_JJ bodies_NN2 before_II formulating_VVG a_AT1 legislative_JJ measure_NN1 for_IF presentation_NN1 to_II Parliament_NN1 ?_? 
Prime_JJ Minister_NN1 Harold_NP1 Wilson_NP1 appeared_VVD to_TO give_VVI some_DD credence_NN1 to_II this_DD1 view_NN1 in_II 1966_MC when_RRQ he_PPHS1 said_VVD in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT duty_NN1 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 to_TO consult_VVI with_IW the_AT Trades_NN2 Union_NN1 Congress_NN1 and_CC the_AT Confederation_NN1 of_IO British_JJ Industry_NN1 ._. 
Few_DA2 other_JJ authorities_NN2 have_VH0 supported_VVN Jennings_NP1 '_GE assertion_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 has_VHZ not_XX found_VVN acceptance_NN1 by_II most_DAT practitioners_NN2 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ usual_JJ for_IF governments_NN2 to_TO engage_VVI in_II such_DA consultation_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX yet_RR a_AT1 convention_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 that_CST they_PPHS2 do_VD0 so_RR ._. 
The_AT fourth_MD and_CC final_JJ source_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 have_VH0 persuasive_JJ authority_NN1 only_RR ._. 
What_DDQ constitutes_VVZ a_AT1 &quot;_" work_NN1 of_IO authority_NN1 &quot;_" is_VBZ rarely_RR defined_VVN ._. 
Various_JJ early_JJ works_NN are_VBR accorded_VVN particular_JJ standing_NN1 by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO statutes_NN2 or_CC other_JJ written_JJ sources_NN2 covering_VVG a_AT1 particular_JJ area_NN1 ._. 
The_AT statements_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE writers_NN2 are_VBR presumed_VVN to_TO be_VBI evidence_NN1 of_IO judicial_JJ decisions_NN2 that_CST have_VH0 been_VBN lost_VVN and_CC are_VBR therefore_RR accepted_VVN if_CS not_XX contrary_II21 to_II22 reason_NN1 ._. 
Among_II the_AT most_RGT important_JJ early_JJ sources_NN2 are_VBR Fitzherbert_NP1 's_GE Abridgment_NN1 (_( 1516_MC )_) and_CC Coke_NN1 's_GE Institutes_NN2 of_IO the_AT Law_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 (_( 1628-1644_MCMC )_) ._. 
More_RGR recent_JJ works_NN have_VH0 been_VBN called_VVN in_II aid_NN1 on_II those_DD2 occasions_NN2 when_RRQ jurists_NN2 and_CC others_NN2 have_VH0 sought_VVN to_TO delineate_VVI features_NN2 of_IO the_AT contemporary_JJ Constitution_NN1 ;_; this_DD1 has_VHZ been_VBN the_AT case_NN1 especially_RR in_II determining_VVG the_AT existence_NN1 or_CC otherwise_RR of_IO conventions_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA conventions_NN2 are_VBR prescribed_VVN neither_RR by_II statute_NN1 nor_CC by_II judicial_JJ interpretation_NN1 ,_, so_CS one_PN1 must_VM study_VVI instead_RR scholarly_JJ interpretations_NN2 of_IO political_JJ behaviour_NN1 and_CC practice_NN1 ._. 
Especially_RR important_JJ authoritative_JJ works_NN in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 were_VBDR those_DD2 by_II John_NP1 Austin_NP1 and_CC A._NNU V._II Dicey_NP1 ._. 
Important_JJ names_NN2 in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 have_VH0 included_VVN Sir_NNB Ivor_NP1 Jennings_NP1 ,_, Sir_NNB Kenneth_NP1 Wheare_NP1 ,_, O._NP1 Hood_NP1 Phillips_NP1 ,_, and_CC E._NP1 C._NP1 S._NP1 Wade_NP1 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT disparate_JJ sources_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 and_CC the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST important_JJ relationships_NN2 within_RL and_CC between_II organs_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 are_VBR not_XX laid_VVN down_RP in_II any_DD one_MC1 formal_JJ or_CC binding_JJ document_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX surprising_JJ that_CST one_PN1 must_VM have_VHI recourse_NN1 to_II books_NN2 by_II constitutional_JJ scholars_NN2 to_TO discover_VVI the_AT extent_NN1 and_CC nature_NN1 of_IO those_DD2 relationships_NN2 ._. 
Works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI consulted_VVN more_RGR frequently_RR in_II the_AT field_NN1 of_IO constitutional_JJ law_NN1 than_CSN in_II any_DD other_JJ branch_NN1 of_IO English_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT disparate_JJ primary_JJ sources_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 and_CC the_AT difficulty_NN1 in_II determining_VVG where_RRQ the_AT Constitution_NN1 begins_VVZ and_CC ends_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ perhaps_RR not_XX surprising_JJ that_CST there_EX are_VBR no_AT extraordinary_JJ procedures_NN2 for_IF its_APPGE amendment_NN1 ._. 
Statute_NN1 and_CC common_JJ law_NN1 of_IO constitutional_JJ significance_NN1 are_VBR subject_II21 to_II22 amendment_NN1 by_II the_AT same_DA process_NN1 as_CSA that_DD1 employed_VVD for_IF other_JJ legislative_JJ enactments_NN2 ._. 
Conventions_NN2 can_VM be_VBI modified_VVN by_II changes_NN2 in_II behaviour_NN1 or_CC by_II reinterpretations_NN2 of_IO the_AT significance_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ behaviour_NN1 ._. 
Works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 can_VM be_VBI rewritten_VVN or_CC subjected_VVN to_II different_JJ interpretations_NN2 in_II the_AT same_DA way_NN1 as_CSA can_VM other_JJ texts_NN2 ._. 
MEANS_NN OF_IO AMENDMENT_NN1 Much_RR the_AT same_DA can_VM be_VBI said_VVN about_II constitutionally_RR significant_JJ statute_NN1 law_NN1 ,_, judicial_JJ decisions_NN2 ,_, and_CC works_NN of_IO authority_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
Even_RR the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT formal_JJ document_NN1 ,_, the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 ,_, may_VM be_VBI amended_VVN by_II judicial_JJ decisions_NN2 and_CC custom_NN1 usage_NN1 ._. 
The_AT difference_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC countries_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT formal_JJ wording_NN1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 can_VM be_VBI amended_VVN only_RR by_II an_AT1 extraordinary_JJ process_NN1 ,_, i.e._REX ,_, one_PN1 that_CST goes_VVZ beyond_II the_AT provisions_NN2 employed_VVN for_IF amending_VVG the_AT ordinary_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
(_( Because_II21 of_II22 the_AT extraordinary_JJ procedures_NN2 necessary_JJ for_IF amendment_NN1 ,_, the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 are_VBR sometimes_RT referred_VVN to_II as_RG &quot;_" entrenched_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" )_) No_AT such_DA formal_JJ amending_JJ procedures_NN2 exist_VV0 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, where_RRQ there_EX is_VBZ no_AT formal_JJ document_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA may_VM be_VBI surmised_VVN from_II the_AT foregoing_JJ ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT single_JJ body_NN1 endowed_VVN with_IW the_AT responsibility_NN1 for_IF interpreting_VVG the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, statute_NN1 and_CC common_JJ law_NN1 are_VBR subject_II21 to_II22 judicial_JJ interpretation_NN1 ,_, but_CCB there_EX is_VBZ no_AT power_NN1 of_IO judicial_JJ review_NN1 ,_, at_RR21 least_RR22 not_XX as_II the_AT term_NN1 is_VBZ understood_VVN in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
The_AT courts_NN2 can_VM not_XX declare_VVI a_AT1 legislative_JJ measure_NN1 or_CC an_AT1 executive_NN1 action_NN1 contrary_II21 to_II22 the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
INTERPRETATION_NN1 The_AT courts_NN2 can_VM influence_VVI and_CC to_II some_DD extent_NN1 mold_VV0 certain_JJ provisions_NN2 through_II their_APPGE interpretation_NN1 of_IO statute_NN1 and_CC common_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, their_APPGE use_NN1 of_IO common_JJ law_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN of_IO especial_JJ importance_NN1 in_II outlining_VVG and_CC protecting_VVG certain_JJ rights_NN2 of_IO the_AT individual_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, at_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT day_NNT1 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR subject_II21 to_II22 the_AT wishes_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Judicial_JJ interpretation_NN1 of_IO statute_NN1 law_NN1 can_VM be_VBI overridden_VVN by_II a_AT1 new_JJ act_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
By_II virtue_NN1 of_IO the_AT concept_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, the_AT act_NN1 would_VM be_VBI definitive_JJ ._. 
The_AT judges_NN2 serve_VV0 to_TO enforce_VVI and_CC interpret_VVI such_DA acts_NN2 :_: they_PPHS2 can_VM not_XX strike_VVI down_RP an_AT1 act_NN1 ._. 
Identification_NN1 and_CC interpretation_NN1 of_IO conventions_NN2 has_VHZ little_DA1 to_TO do_VDI with_IW the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
Conventions_NN2 arise_VV0 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO changes_NN2 in_II the_AT relationships_NN2 within_RL and_CC between_II different_JJ organs_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
Their_APPGE delineation_NN1 rests_VVZ with_IW scholars_NN2 ,_, and_CC their_APPGE enforcement_NN1 rests_VVZ with_IW those_DD2 at_II whom_PNQO they_PPHS2 are_VBR aimed_VVN ._. 
As_CSA with_IW conventions_NN2 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR beyond_II the_AT purview_NN1 of_IO the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, is_VBZ subject_II21 to_II22 interpretation_NN1 by_II different_JJ bodies_NN2 ,_, the_AT most_RGT prominent_JJ being_NN1 politicians_NN2 ,_, judges_NN2 ,_, and_CC scholars_NN2 ._. 
The_AT same_DA can_VM be_VBI said_VVN of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 ,_, but_CCB in_II Britain_NP1 there_EX is_VBZ no_AT body_NN1 that_CST stands_VVZ in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 analogous_JJ to_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Supreme_JJ Court_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ an_AT1 important_JJ difference_NN1 ,_, reflecting_VVG the_AT differences_NN2 in_II political_JJ culture_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Lockean_JJ basis_NN1 of_IO constitutional_JJ interpretation_NN1 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 -a_AT1 higher_JJR law_NN1 cognizable_JJ by_II independent_JJ ,_, rational_JJ magistrates_NN2 operating_VVG free_JJ of_IO outside_JJ interests_NN2 finds_VVZ no_AT parallel_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
The_AT central_JJ provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 are_VBR listed_VVN in_II Table_NN1 4.1_MC :_: parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 unitary_JJ (_( as_II31 opposed_II32 to_II33 a_AT1 federal_JJ )_) system_NN1 ,_, and_CC what_DDQ I_PPIS1 have_VH0 termed_VVN parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 under_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ monarchy_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS there_EX is_VBZ some_DD dispute_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 whether_CSW it_PPH1 should_VM remain_VVI so_RR ,_, the_AT preeminent_JJ provision_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, the_AT great_JJ constitutional_JJ lawyer_NN1 A._NNU V._II Dicey_NP1 identified_VVD it_PPH1 as_CSA being_VBG one_MC1 of_IO the_AT two_MC main_JJ pillars_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, the_AT other_NN1 being_VBG that_DD1 of_IO the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ._. 
Dicey_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 has_VHZ had_VHN a_AT1 major_JJ and_CC lasting_JJ impact_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II subsequent_JJ criticisms_NN2 ,_, the_AT two_MC pillars_NN2 identified_VVN by_II Dicey_NP1 still_RR stand_VV0 ._. 
While_CS some_DD critics_NN2 have_VH0 considered_VVN them_PPHO2 weak_JJ and_CC unnecessary_JJ pillars_NN2 ,_, supporting_VVG a_AT1 crumbing_JJ edifice_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 remain_VV0 crucial_JJ to_II an_AT1 understanding_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 ._. 
MAIN_JJ PROVISIONS_NN2 The_AT most_RGT succinct_JJ definition_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 was_VBDZ offered_VVN by_II Dicey_NP1 ._. 
Parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, he_PPHS1 wrote_VVD ,_, meant_VVD that_DD1 Parliament_NN1 had_VHD &quot;_" the_AT right_NN1 to_TO make_VVI or_CC unmake_VVI any_DD law_NN1 whatever_DDQV ;_; and_CC ,_, further_RRR ,_, that_CST no_AT person_NN1 or_CC body_NN1 is_VBZ recognized_VVN by_II the_AT law_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 as_CSA having_VHG a_AT1 right_NN1 to_TO override_VVI or_CC set_VVI aside_RL the_AT legislation_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" An_AT1 act_NN1 passed_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 would_VM be_VBI enforced_VVN by_II the_AT courts_NN2 ,_, the_AT courts_NN2 recognizing_VVG no_AT body_NN1 other_II21 than_II22 Parliament_NN1 as_CSA having_VHG authority_NN1 to_TO override_VVI such_DA an_AT1 act_NN1 ._. 
Parliament_NN1 itself_PPX1 could_VM substitute_VVI an_AT1 act_NN1 for_IF an_AT1 earlier_JJR one_PN1 ._. 
One_MC1 of_IO the_AT precepts_NN2 derived_VVN from_II the_AT principle_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 Parliament_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX bound_VVN by_II its_APPGE predecessors_NN2 ._. 
Once_RR Parliament_NN1 has_VHZ passed_VVN an_AT1 act_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ the_AT law_NN1 of_IO the_AT land_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX open_JJ to_II challenge_NN1 before_II the_AT courts_NN2 on_II the_AT grounds_NN2 of_IO being_VBG unconstitutional_JJ ._. 
Although_CS Dicey_NP1 claimed_VVD more_RGR ancient_JJ lineage_NN1 for_IF it_PPH1 ,_, the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 became_VVD established_VVN as_II a_AT1 judicial_JJ rule_NN1 in_II consequence_NN1 of_IO the_AT Glorious_JJ Revolution_NN1 of_IO 1688_MC and_CC subsequent_JJ Bill_NN1 of_IO Rights_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ established_VVD the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT Crown_NN1 and_CC Parliament_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 3_MC )_) ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ the_AT product_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 alliance_NN1 between_II Parliament_NN1 and_CC lawyers_NN2 and_CC of_IO the_AT intimidation_NN1 of_IO judges_NN2 by_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
Assertion_NN1 of_IO the_AT principle_NN1 served_VVD to_TO do_VDI away_JJ with_IW the_AT monarch_NN1 's_VBZ previously_RR claimed_VVN powers_NN2 to_TO suspend_VVI or_CC dispense_VVI with_IW acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 served_VVD to_TO deny_VVI judges_NN2 the_AT power_NN1 to_TO strike_VVI down_RP measures_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 came_VVD to_TO occupy_VVI a_AT1 unique_JJ place_NN1 in_II constitutional_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
The_AT principle_NN1 finds_VVZ no_AT expression_NN1 in_II statute_NN1 or_CC any_DD other_JJ formal_JJ enactment_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 exists_VVZ in_II common_JJ law_NN1 but_CCB enjoys_VVZ a_AT1 special_JJ status_NN1 beyond_II that_DD1 enjoyed_VVD by_II other_JJ principles_NN2 of_IO common_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
Its_APPGE underpinnings_NN2 are_VBR not_XX only_RR legal_JJ but_CCB also_RR political_JJ and_CC historical_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ now_RT too_RG late_JJ to_TO challenge_VVI the_AT principle_NN1 ._. 
Judicial_JJ obedience_NN1 to_II it_PPH1 constitutes_VVZ what_DDQ H._NP1 W._NP1 R._NP1 Wade_NP1 referred_VVD to_II as_CSA &quot;_" the_AT ultimate_JJ political_JJ fact_NN1 upon_II which_DDQ the_AT whole_JJ system_NN1 of_IO legislation_NN1 hangs_VVZ ._. 
&quot;_" No_AT statute_NN1 can_VM confer_VVI the_AT power_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, for_IF that_DD1 would_VM be_VBI to_TO confer_VVI the_AT very_JJ power_NN1 being_VBG acted_VVN upon_II ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ therefore_RR considered_VVN to_TO be_VBI unique_JJ ._. 
As_CSA Hood_NP1 Phillips_NP1 states_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" It_PPH1 may_VM indeed_RR be_VBI called_VVN the_AT one_MC1 fundamental_JJ law_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT second_MD pillar_NN1 identified_VVN by_II Dicey_NP1 was_VBDZ that_DD1 of_IO &quot;_" the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Identifying_VVG what_DDQ is_VBZ meant_VVN by_II the_AT term_NN1 is_VBZ extremely_RR difficult_JJ ._. 
Few_DA2 students_NN2 of_IO the_AT constitution_NN1 would_VM deny_VVI the_AT important_JJ of_IO the_AT tenet_NN1 ._. 
Dicey_NN1 himself_PPX1 argued_VVD that_CST it_PPH1 comprised_VVD &quot;_" at_RR21 least_RR22 three_MC distinct_JJ though_CS kindred_JJ conceptions_NN2 &quot;_" :_: &quot;_" That_CST no_AT man_NN1 is_VBZ punishable_JJ or_CC can_VM be_VBI lawfully_RR made_VVN to_TO suffer_VVI in_II body_NN1 or_CC goods_NN2 except_II21 for_II22 a_AT1 distinct_JJ breach_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 established_VVN in_II the_AT ordinary_JJ legal_JJ manner_NN1 before_II the_AT ordinary_JJ courts_NN2 of_IO the_AT land_NN1 &quot;_" ;_; that_CST &quot;_" no_AT man_NN1 is_VBZ above_II the_AT law_NN1 &lsqb;_( and_CC &rsqb;_) every_AT1 man_NN1 ,_, whatever_DDQV be_VBI his_APPGE rank_NN1 or_CC condition_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ subject_II21 to_II22 the_AT ordinary_JJ law_NN1 of_IO the_AT realm_NN1 and_CC amenable_JJ to_II the_AT jurisdiction_NN1 of_IO the_AT ordinary_JJ tribunals_NN2 &quot;_" ;_; and_CC that_CST &quot;_" the_AT general_JJ principles_NN2 of_IO the_AT constitution_NN1 &lsqb;_( are_VBR &rsqb;_) the_AT result_NN1 of_IO judicial_JJ decisions_NN2 determining_VVG the_AT rights_NN2 of_IO private_JJ persons_NN2 in_II particular_JJ cases_NN2 brought_VVN before_II the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" These_DD2 three_MC conceptions_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN subject_II21 to_II22 various_JJ criticisms_NN2 :_: that_CST many_DA2 of_IO the_AT discretionary_JJ powers_NN2 are_VBR vested_VVN in_II officials_NN2 and_CC public_JJ bodies_NN2 ,_, that_CST many_DA2 officials_NN2 and_CC bodies_NN2 have_VH0 powers_NN2 and_CC immunities_NN2 that_CST the_AT ordinary_JJ citizen_NN1 does_VDZ not_XX have_VHI ,_, and_CC that_DD1 certain_JJ rights_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN modified_VVN by_II or_CC enacted_VVN in_II statute_NN1 ._. 
Further_RRR it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX clear_RR why_RRQ Dicey_NP1 's_GE third_MD conception_NN1 should_VM be_VBI considered_VVN &quot;_" kindred_NN1 &quot;_" to_II the_AT other_JJ two_MC ._. 
Some_DD students_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 find_VV0 Dicey_NP1 's_GE analysis_NN1 useful_JJ ,_, ad_NN1 others_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI dismissive_JJ ._. 
The_AT important_JJ point_NN1 for_IF our_APPGE purposes_NN2 is_VBZ that_CST there_EX is_VBZ no_AT agreed_JJ definition_NN1 ._. 
The_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ,_, then_RT ,_, stands_VVZ as_II a_AT1 central_JJ element_NN1 of_IO the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 ,_, but_CCB no_PN121 one_PN122 is_VBZ sure_JJ precisely_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 means_VVZ ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ some_DD common_JJ ground_NN1 in_II that_DD1 it_PPH1 is_VBZ assumed_VVN to_TO imply_VVI certain_JJ substantive_JJ and_CC procedural_JJ rights_NN2 ,_, government_NN1 must_VM be_VBI subject_II21 to_II22 the_AT law_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT judiciary_NN1 must_VM be_VBI independent_JJ ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 is_VBZ one_MC1 of_IO determining_VVG what_DDQ those_DD2 rights_NN2 are_VBR ,_, how_RRQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR to_TO be_VBI protected_VVN ,_, and_CC how_RRQ the_AT independence_NN1 of_IO the_AT judiciary_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO be_VBI maintained_VVN ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 further_JJR problem_NN1 ._. 
The_AT concept_NN1 of_IO the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX logically_RR compatible_JJ with_IW that_DD1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ._. 
Parliament_NN1 could_VM if_CS it_PPH1 so_RR wishes_NN2 confer_VV0 arbitrary_JJ powers_NN2 upon_II government_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 could_VM fetter_VVI the_AT independence_NN1 of_IO the_AT judiciary_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 could_VM limit_VVI or_CC remove_VVI altogether_RR certain_JJ rights_NN2 presumed_VVD to_TO exist_VVI at_II common_JJ law_NN1 ._. 
The_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 ,_, in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, could_VM be_VBI threatened_VVN or_CC even_RR dispensed_VVN with_IW by_II parliamentary_JJ enactment_NN1 ._. 
Dicey_NN1 himself_PPX1 recognized_VVD this_DD1 problem_NN1 and_CC sought_VVD to_TO resolve_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
He_PPHS1 argued_VVD ,_, in_II essence_NN1 ,_, that_CST the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 prevented_VVD government_NN1 from_II exercising_VVG arbitrary_JJ powers_NN2 ._. 
If_CS government_NN1 wanted_VVD such_DA powers_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 could_VM obtain_VVI them_PPHO2 only_RR through_II Parliament_NN1 (_( Parliament_NN1 itself_PPX1 has_VHZ never_RR sought_VVN to_TO exercise_VVI executive_NN1 powers_NN2 )_) and_CC the_AT granting_NN1 of_IO them_PPHO2 could_VM take_VVI place_NN1 only_RR after_II deliberation_NN1 and_CC approval_NN1 by_II the_AT triumvirate_NN1 of_IO monarch_NN1 ,_, Lords_NP ,_, and_CC Commons_NP ._. 
Such_DA an_AT1 argument_NN1 serves_VVZ to_TO explain_VVI potential_JJ impediments_NN2 to_II a_AT1 government_NN1 intent_NN1 on_II acquiring_VVG arbitrary_JJ powers_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 does_VDZ not_XX deny_VVI the_AT truth_NN1 of_IO the_AT assertion_NN1 that_CST Parliament_NN1 could_VM ,_, if_CS it_PPH1 wished_VVD ,_, confer_VV0 such_DA powers_NN2 upon_II government_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, many_DA2 observers_NN2 would_VM argue_VVI that_DD1 given_VVN the_AT growth_NN1 of_IO cabinet_NN1 government_NN1 ,_, the_AT potential_NN1 for_IF government_NN1 to_TO seek_VVI and_CC receive_VVI such_DA powers_NN2 is_VBZ significantly_RR greater_JJR now_RT than_CSN was_VBDZ the_AT case_NN1 at_II the_AT time_NNT1 when_RRQ Dicey_NP1 was_VBDZ writing_VVG ._. 
For_IF many_DA2 critics_NN2 of_IO the_AT existing_JJ Constitution_NN1 ,_, parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 no_RR21 longer_RR22 constitutes_VVZ an_AT1 encouragement_NN1 to_TO the_AT rule_NN1 of_IO law_NN1 but_CCB rather_RR exists_VVZ as_II an_AT1 impediment_NN1 to_II its_APPGE attainment_NN1 ._. 
So_RR long_RR as_CSA parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 remains_VVZ &quot;_" the_AT one_MC1 fundamental_JJ law_NN1 &quot;_" of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT way_NN1 in_II which_DDQ substantive_JJ rights_NN2 can_VM be_VBI entrenched_VVN and_CC put_VVN beyond_II the_AT reach_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT third_MD feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 that_CST I_PPIS1 have_VH0 listed_VVN that_CST the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 unitary_JJ state_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 less_RGR difficult_JJ one_PN1 to_TO comprehend_VVI ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 is_VBZ a_AT1 federal_JJ nation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT power_NN1 vested_VVN in_II the_AT federal_JJ government_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 delegated_VVN in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 Constitution_NN1 :_: all_DB other_JJ powers_NN2 not_XX delegated_JJ rest_NN1 with_IW the_AT states_NN2 or_CC the_AT people_NN ._. 
In_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ,_, no_AT powers_NN2 are_VBR reserved_VVN to_II national_JJ or_CC regional_JJ bodies_NN2 ._. 
If_CS they_PPHS2 were_VBDR ,_, Parliament_NN1 would_VM not_XX be_VBI omnicompetent_JJ ._. 
Parliament_NN1 exercises_VVZ legal_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 can_VM confer_VVI certain_JJ powers_NN2 and_CC responsibilities_NN2 upon_II regional_JJ and_CC local_JJ authorities_NN2 ,_, and_CC it_PPH1 can_VM also_RR remove_VVI those_DD2 powers_NN2 ._. 
The_AT unitary_JJ nation_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 of_IO Great_NP1 Britain_NP1 and_CC Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ._. 
Wales_NP1 was_VBDZ integrated_VVN with_IW England_NP1 in_II 1536_MC by_II act_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 (_( the_AT Laws_NN2 in_II Wales_NP1 Act_NN1 )_) ,_, and_CC Scotland_NP1 and_CC England_NP1 were_VBDR incorporated_VVN in_II 1707_MC by_II the_AT Treaty_NN1 of_IO Union_NP1 and_CC by_II the_AT Act_NN1 of_IO Union_NN1 with_IW Scotland_NP1 ._. 
Ireland_NP1 entered_VVD into_II legislative_JJ union_NN1 in_II 1801_MC ._. 
Following_VVG an_AT1 armed_JJ uprising_NN1 ,_, the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO the_AT Irish_JJ Free_JJ State_NN1 was_VBDZ recognized_VVN in_II 1922_MC and_CC given_VVN the_AT status_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 self-governing_JJ dominion_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT Irish_JJ Constitution_NN1 of_IO 1937_MC declared_VVD the_AT country_NN1 to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 sovereign_JJ independent_JJ state_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 position_NN1 recognized_VVN by_II the_AT Westminster_NP1 Parliament_NN1 in_II 1949_MC )_) ._. 
Excluded_VVN from_II the_AT Irish_JJ Free_JJ State_NN1 were_VBDR the_AT northern_JJ six_MC counties_NN2 of_IO Ireland_NP1 ,_, forming_VVG part_NN1 of_IO the_AT traditional_JJ region_NN1 of_IO Ulster_NP1 ._. 
The_AT Protestant_JJ majority_NN1 in_II Ulster_NP1 wished_VVD to_TO remain_VVI part_NN1 of_IO the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT province_NN1 of_IO Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 has_VHZ so_RR remained_VVN ._. 
The_AT fourth_MD element_NN1 of_IO the_AT constitution_NN1 is_VBZ one_PN1 that_CST I_PPIS1 have_VH0 described_VVN as_II a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 under_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ monarchy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 element_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ especially_RR important_JJ in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT current_JJ relationships_NN2 among_II the_AT different_JJ organs_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 and_CC the_AT one_PN1 in_II which_DDQ conventions_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 are_VBR predominant_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 constitutes_VVZ an_AT1 assembly_NN1 of_IO different_JJ relationships_NN2 and_CC powers_NN2 ,_, the_AT product_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ institutions_NN2 being_VBG adapted_VVN to_TO meet_VVI changing_JJ circumstances_NN2 ._. 
The_AT developments_NN2 producing_VVG this_DD1 form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 were_VBDR sketched_VVN in_II Chapter_NN1 3_MC ._. 
The_AT results_NN2 ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, were_VBDR parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 in_II the_AT sense_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 through_II Parliament_NN1 rather_II21 than_II22 government_NN1 by_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, with_IW a_AT1 largely_RR ceremonial_JJ head_NN1 of_IO state_NN1 ._. 
The_AT essentials_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 form_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 may_VM be_VBI adumbrated_VVN as_CSA follows_VVZ ._. 
In_II the_AT relationship_NN1 among_II government_NN1 ,_, Parliament_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT monarch_NN1 ,_, the_AT government_NN1 dominates_VVZ ._. 
Although_CS lacking_VVG formal_JJ powers_NN2 ,_, the_AT cabinet_NN1 is_VBZ recognized_VVN by_II convention_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG at_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ responsible_JJ for_IF the_AT final_JJ determination_NN1 of_IO policy_NN1 to_TO be_VBI submitted_VVN to_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, for_IF the_AT supreme_JJ control_NN1 of_IO the_AT national_JJ executive_NN1 in_II31 accordance_II32 with_II33 the_AT policy_NN1 prescribed_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, and_CC for_IF the_AT continuous_JJ coordination_NN1 and_CC delimitation_NN1 of_IO the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO the_AT several_DA2 departments_NN2 of_IO state_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ presided_VVN over_II by_II the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 ._. 
The_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 is_VBZ appointed_VVN by_II the_AT monarch_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, the_AT monarch_NN1 summons_VV0 the_AT leader_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
(_( In_II the_AT event_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 party_NN1 having_VHG no_AT overall_JJ majority_NN1 ,_, the_AT monarch_NN1 summons_NN1 whoever_PNQV he_PPHS1 or_CC she_PPHS1 believed_VVD may_VM be_VBI able_JK to_TO form_VVI an_AT1 administration_NN1 )_) ._. 
The_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 then_RT selects_VVZ the_AT members_NN2 of_IO his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE cabinet_NN1 and_CC other_JJ government_NN1 ministers_NN2 and_CC submits_VVZ their_APPGE names_NN2 to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 who_PNQS ,_, by_II convention_NN1 ,_, does_VDZ not_XX deny_VVI the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 's_GE choice_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, ministers_NN2 are_VBR drawn_VVN from_II Parliament_NN1 and_CC ,_, again_RT by_II convention_NN1 ,_, predominantly_RR from_II the_AT elected_JJ house_NN1 ,_, the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
Although_CS the_AT government_NN1 is_VBZ no_RR21 longer_RR22 chosen_VVN by_II the_AT Commons_NP ,_, it_PPH1 nonetheless_RR is_VBZ elected_VVN through_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP :_: there_EX is_VBZ no_AT separate_JJ election_NN1 of_IO the_AT executive_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 separation_NN1 and_CC overlap_NN1 of_IO powers_NN2 between_II the_AT government_NN1 and_CC the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP in_II Britain_NP1 but_CCB no_AT equivalent_JJ separation_NN1 of_IO personnel_NN2 ._. 
Government_NN1 ministers_NN2 are_VBR drawn_VVN from_II ,_, and_CC remain_VV0 within_RL ,_, Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Formally_RR ,_, ministers_NN2 are_VBR responsible_JJ to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR responsible_JJ for_IF their_APPGE policies_NN2 and_CC actions_NN2 to_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Ministers_NN2 are_VBR responsible_JJ to_II Parliament_NN1 through_II the_AT convention_NN1 of_IO individual_JJ ministerial_JJ responsibility_NN1 which_DDQ assigns_VVZ to_II them_PPHO2 control_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE departments_NN2 ,_, for_IF which_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR answerable_JJ to_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT cabinet_NN1 is_VBZ similarly_RR responsible_JJ to_II Parliament_NN1 through_II the_AT convention_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ ministerial_JJ responsibility_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 convention_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 scholar_NN1 writes_VVZ ,_, &quot;_" implies_VVZ that_CST all_DB cabinet_NN1 ministers_NN2 assume_VV0 responsibility_NN1 for_IF cabinet_NN1 decisions_NN2 and_CC actions_NN2 taken_VVN to_TO implement_VVI those_DD2 decisions_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" It_PPH1 also_RR has_VHZ begotten_VVN two_MC other_JJ conventions_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ a_AT1 corollary_NN1 of_IO collective_JJ responsibility_NN1 that_CST any_DD minister_NN1 who_PNQS disagrees_VVZ publicly_RR with_IW a_AT1 cabinet_NN1 decision_NN1 should_VM resign_VVI and_CC that_CST a_AT1 government_NN1 defeat_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP on_II a_AT1 vote_NN1 of_IO confidence_NN1 necessitates_VVZ either_RR the_AT resignation_NN1 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 or_CC a_AT1 request_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 dissolution_NN1 (_( there_EX is_VBZ no_AT convention_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 which_DDQ of_IO these_DD2 alternatives_NN2 the_AT government_NN1 should_VM select_VVI )_) ._. 
Party_NN1 cohesion_NN1 ensures_VVZ that_CST the_AT cabinet_NN1 usually_RR enjoys_VVZ a_AT1 parliamentary_JJ majority_NN1 ,_, but_CCB political_JJ parties_NN2 remain_VV0 unknown_JJ to_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
The_AT cabinet_NN1 approves_VVZ government_NN1 bills_NN2 to_TO be_VBI presented_VVN to_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
(_( In_II drawing_VVG up_RP measures_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ aided_VVN primarily_RR by_II its_APPGE officials_NN2 that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, civil_JJ servants_NN2 and_CC will_VM consult_VVI normally_RR with_IW interested_JJ bodies_NN2 :_: such_DA consultation_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, enjoys_VVZ no_AT formal_JJ recognition_NN1 in_II constitutional_JJ terms_NN2 ._. )_) 
Within_II Parliament_NN1 ,_, the_AT most_RGT important_JJ house_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT Commons_NP ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 is_VBZ expected_VVN to_TO submit_VVI bills_NN2 to_II sustained_JJ scrutiny_NN1 and_CC debate_NN1 before_II giving_VVG its_APPGE assent_NN1 to_II them_PPHO2 (_( or_CC not_XX giving_VVG its_APPGE assent_NN1 to_II them_PPHO2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT influence_NN1 of_IO party_NN1 usually_RR precludes_VVZ such_DA an_AT1 outcome_NN1 )_) ._. 
Formally_RR ,_, the_AT House_NN1 is_VBZ free_JJ to_TO pass_VVI or_CC reject_VVI bills_NN2 as_CSA it_PPH1 wishes_VVZ ._. 
The_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP is_VBZ more_RGR constrained_JJ (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 3_MC )_) ;_; it_PPH1 was_VBDZ forced_VVN to_TO accept_VVI a_AT1 restricted_JJ role_NN1 under_II the_AT terms_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1911_MC and_CC 1949_MC Parliament_NN1 Acts_NN2 ._. 
Under_II the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1911_MC Act_NN1 (_( a_AT1 measure_NN1 to_II which_DDQ the_AT Lords_NN2 acquiesced_VVN under_II threat_NN1 of_IO being_VBG swamped_VVN with_IW a_AT1 mass_NN1 of_IO new_JJ Liberal_JJ pro-reform_JJ peers_NN2 )_) ,_, the_AT House_NN1 could_VM delay_VVI passage_NN1 of_IO nonmoney_NN1 bills_NN2 for_IF only_RR two_MC successive_JJ sessions_NNT2 ,_, such_DA bills_NN2 being_VBG enacted_VVN if_CS passed_VVN by_II the_AT Commons_NP again_RT the_AT succeeding_JJ session_NNT1 ._. 
Money_NN1 bills_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 certified_VVN as_CSA such_DA by_II the_AT Speaker_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ,_, were_VBDR to_TO receive_VVI the_AT Royal_JJ Assent_NN1 one_MC1 month_NNT1 after_II leaving_VVG the_AT Commons_NP ,_, whether_CSW assented_VVN to_II by_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP or_CC not_XX ._. 
The_AT only_JJ significant_JJ power_NN1 of_IO veto_NN1 retained_VVD was_VBDZ that_CST over_II bills_NN2 to_TO prolong_VVI the_AT life_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Parliament_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT delaying_NN1 power_NN1 over_II nonmoney_NN1 bills_NN2 was_VBDZ reduced_VVN by_II a_AT1 further_JJR session_NNT1 under_II the_AT terms_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1949_MC Parliament_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, itself_PPX1 passed_VVN under_II the_AT provisions_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1911_MC Act_NN1 ._. )_) 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ rare_JJ for_IF the_AT Lords_NN2 to_TO reject_VVI government_NN1 measures_NN2 ,_, and_CC there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 gentleman_NN1 's_GE agreement_NN1 among_II the_AT parties_NN2 in_II the_AT House_NN1 that_CST a_AT1 bill_NN1 promised_VVN in_II a_AT1 government_NN1 's_GE election_NN1 manifesto_NN1 should_VM be_VBI given_VVN an_AT1 unopposed_JJ Second_NNT1 Reading_NP1 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 11_MC )_) ._. 
Once_RR a_AT1 bill_NN1 has_VHZ received_VVN the_AT assent_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 Houses_NN2 it_PPH1 then_RT goes_VVZ to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 for_IF the_AT Royal_JJ Assent_NN1 ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, this_DD1 assent_NN1 is_VBZ always_RR forthcoming_JJ ._. 
As_CSA already_RR mentioned_VVN ,_, not_XX since_CS Queen_NNB Anne_NP1 's_GE reign_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 monarch_NN1 refused_VVN assent_NN1 ._. 
Queen_NNB Victoria_NP1 contemplated_VVD such_DA refusal_NN1 but_CCB was_VBDZ persuaded_VVN otherwise_RR ._. 
By_II convention_NN1 ,_, the_AT Queen_NN1 exercises_VVZ her_APPGE powers_NN2 on_II the_AT advice_NN1 of_IO her_APPGE ministers_NN2 ._. 
In_II certain_JJ extreme_JJ circumstances_NN2 ,_, Her_APPGE Majesty_NN1 may_VM find_VVI herself_PPX1 in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 in_II which_DDQ she_PPHS1 is_VBZ called_VVN on_II21 to_II22 use_NN1 her_APPGE discretion_NN1 in_II making_VVG a_AT1 political_JJ decision_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA cases_NN2 are_VBR rare_JJ ,_, though_CS the_AT Queen_NN1 would_VM probably_RR prefer_VVI them_PPHO2 to_TO be_VBI nonexistent_JJ ._. 
The_AT strength_NN1 and_CC the_AT value_NN1 of_IO the_AT contemporary_JJ monarchy_NN1 derives_VVZ from_II being_VBG above_RL and_CC avoiding_VVG political_JJ decisions_NN2 ._. 
The_AT moment_NN1 a_AT1 bill_NN1 receives_VVZ the_AT Royal_JJ Assent_NN1 it_PPH1 becomes_VVZ an_AT1 act_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ then_RT enforced_VVN and_CC upheld_VVN by_II the_AT agencies_NN2 of_IO the_AT state_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ binding_JJ and_CC ,_, by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO the_AT doctrine_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, can_VM not_XX be_VBI challenged_VVN by_II the_AT courts_NN2 ,_, nor_CC can_VM it_PPH1 be_VBI overridden_VVN by_II any_DD other_JJ authority_NN1 ._. 
The_AT development_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 form_NN1 of_IO representative_JJ democracy_NN1 in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 led_VVD Dicey_NP1 to_TO distinguish_VVI between_II legal_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ continued_VVD to_TO reside_VVI with_IW the_AT triumvirate_NN1 of_IO the_AT monarch_NN1 ,_, Lords_NP ,_, and_CC Commons_NN2 ,_, and_CC political_JJ sovereignty_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ he_PPHS1 deemed_VVD to_TO rest_VVI with_IW the_AT electorate_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 somewhat_RR clumsy_JJ distinction_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 certain_JJ utility_NN1 ._. 
The_AT electorate_NN1 may_VM have_VHI the_AT power_NN1 to_TO choose_VVI the_AT members_NN2 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP but_CCB the_AT will_NN1 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX something_PN1 formally_RR recognized_VVN by_II the_AT courts_NN2 ._. 
The_AT courts_NN2 recognize_VV0 and_CC will_VM enforce_VVI only_JJ acts_NN2 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
Under_II the_AT provision_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1911_MC Parliament_NN1 Act_NN1 ,_, the_AT maximum_JJ life_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Parliament_NN1 is_VBZ five_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
(_( Previously_RR ,_, the_AT period_NN1 was_VBDZ seven_MC years_NNT2 ._. )_) 
Within_II that_DD1 period_NN1 ,_, the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 is_VBZ free_JJ to_TO recommend_VVI to_II the_AT monarch_NN1 a_AT1 dissolution_NN1 in_II effect_NN1 ,_, to_TO call_VVI a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 ._. 
Unlike_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, Britain_NP1 has_VHZ no_AT fixed-term_JJ elections_NN2 at_II a_AT1 national_JJ level_NN1 ._. 
The_AT ability_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 prime_JJ minister_NN1 effectively_RR to_TO call_VVI a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN regarded_VVN by_II some_DD writers_NN2 as_II the_AT most_RGT important_JJ weapon_NN1 in_II ensuring_VVG parliamentary_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
The_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 can_VM threaten_VVI to_TO recommend_VVI a_AT1 dissolution_NN1 if_CS he_PPHS1 or_CC she_PPHS1 does_VDZ not_XX receive_VVI the_AT necessary_JJ support_NN1 to_TO get_VVI a_AT1 measure_NN1 through_RP ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 threat_NN1 may_VM constitute_VVI a_AT1 bluff_NN1 in_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 would_VM have_VHI more_DAR to_TO lose_VVI if_CSW an_AT1 election_NN1 was_VBDZ called_VVN than_CSN would_VM most_RGT MPs_NNU (_( the_AT PM_NP1 could_VM lose_VVI office_NN1 :_: most_DAT seats_NN2 are_VBR safe_JJ seats_NN2 and_CC so_RR most_DAT MPs_NN2 could_VM expect_VVI to_TO be_VBI reelected_VVN )_) ,_, but_CCB nonetheless_RR it_PPH1 has_VHZ proved_VVN a_AT1 potent_JJ influence_NN1 in_II determining_VVG parliamentary_JJ behaviour_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 would_VM be_VBI exceptional_JJ ,_, albeit_CS not_XX unknown_JJ ,_, for_IF MPs_NNU of_IO the_AT government_NN1 party_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI against_II their_APPGE own_DA side_NN1 on_II a_AT1 vote_NN1 of_IO confidence_NN1 ._. 
No_AT government_NN1 in_II the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 has_VHZ lost_VVN a_AT1 vote_NN1 of_IO confidence_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO dissent_NN1 by_II its_APPGE own_DA supporters_NN2 hence_RR the_AT dominance_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 ._. 
In_II summary_NN1 ,_, then_RT ,_, the_AT fourth_MD element_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 parliamentary_JJ government_NN1 under_II a_AT1 constitutional_JJ monarch_NN1 may_VM be_VBI seen_VVN to_TO comprise_VVI different_JJ relationships_NN2 and_CC powers_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 relationships_NN2 and_CC powers_NN2 are_VBR the_AT product_NN1 of_IO traditional_JJ institutions_NN2 being_VBG adapted_VVN to_TO meet_VVI changing_JJ circumstances_NN2 and_CC are_VBR prescribed_VVN by_II a_AT1 variety_NN1 of_IO measures_NN2 of_IO statute_NN1 and_CC common_JJ law_NN1 and_CC by_II convention_NN1 ._. 
The_AT working_NN1 of_IO the_AT various_JJ relationships_NN2 within_II the_AT framework_NN1 established_VVN by_II law_NN1 and_CC convention_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN possible_JJ by_II the_AT operation_NN1 of_IO bodies_NN2 not_XX formally_RR recognized_VVN by_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 ,_, namely_REX political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
To_TO understand_VVI contemporary_JJ British_JJ politics_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO understand_VVI the_AT constitutional_JJ framework_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, to_TO understand_VVI British_JJ politics_NN1 fully_RR one_PN1 has_VHZ also_RR to_TO go_VVI beyond_II that_DD1 framework_NN1 ._. 
The_AT shifting_NN1 and_CC complex_JJ web_NN1 of_IO relationships_NN2 and_CC powers_NN2 that_CST forms_VVZ the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX an_AT1 easily_RR discernible_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR some_DD powers_NN2 and_CC relationships_NN2 that_CST recognizably_RR fall_VV0 within_II the_AT rubric_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
Others_NN2 are_VBR less_RGR easy_JJ to_TO classify_VVI ._. 
Sometimes_RT a_AT1 feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ discerned_VVN as_CSA such_DA only_RR at_II the_AT time_NNT1 when_RRQ it_PPH1 has_VHZ just_RR ceased_VVN to_TO have_VHI much_DA1 relevance_NN1 ._. 
Walter_NP1 Bagehot_NP1 's_GE The_AT English_JJ Constitution_NN1 ,_, published_VVN in_II 1867_MC ,_, constituted_VVD a_AT1 classic_JJ description_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 Constitution_NN1 that_CST had_VHD not_XX previously_RR been_VBN so_RG well_RR sketched_VVN ,_, yet_RR a_AT1 Constitution_NN1 that_CST was_VBDZ to_TO undergo_VVI significant_JJ modifications_NN2 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT passage_NN1 that_DD1 very_JJ year_NNT1 of_IO the_AT Second_MD Reform_NN1 Act_NN1 ._. 
Bagehot_NP1 's_GE work_NN1 continued_VVD to_TO be_VBI regarded_VVN as_II an_AT1 authoritative_JJ work_NN1 long_RR after_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 had_VHD undergone_VVN fundamental_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
CONCLUSION_NN1 Grasping_VVG the_AT essentials_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 at_II any_DD given_JJ moment_NN1 is_VBZ clearly_RR a_AT1 demanding_JJ and_CC confusing_JJ task_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ confusing_JJ even_RR to_II those_DD2 charged_VVN with_IW its_APPGE interpretation_NN1 and_CC to_II those_DD2 who_PNQS seek_VV0 to_TO make_VVI it_PPH1 work_VVI ._. 
To_II the_AT student_NN1 of_IO the_AT subject_NN1 ,_, the_AT British_JJ Constitution_NN1 appears_VVZ complex_JJ ,_, confusing_JJ ,_, ill_RR defined_VVN ,_, and_CC in_II many_DA2 respects_NN2 amorphous_JJ ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 reaction_NN1 is_VBZ both_RR natural_JJ and_CC understandable_JJ :_: the_AT Constitution_NN1 does_VDZ exhibit_VVI those_DD2 very_JJ characteristics_NN2 ._. 
At_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO the_AT difficulty_NN1 of_IO delineating_VVG clearly_RR the_AT essential_JJ features_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 is_VBZ its_APPGE ever-changing_JJ nature_NN1 ._. 
Constitutional_JJ norms_NN2 serve_VV0 to_TO influence_VVI and_CC mold_VVI political_JJ behaviour_NN1 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, political_JJ behaviour_NN1 helps_NN2 influence_VVI the_AT contours_NN2 of_IO the_AT Constitution_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN ,_, such_DA changes_NN2 are_VBR made_VVN possible_JJ by_II the_AT assimilating_JJ influence_NN1 of_IO conventions_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT conventions_NN2 of_IO the_AT constitution_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" as_CSA Professor_NNB LeMay_NP1 observed_VVD ,_, &quot;_" have_VH0 meaning_NN1 only_RR when_CS they_PPHS2 are_VBR looked_VVN at_II against_II a_AT1 background_NN1 of_IO continuous_JJ political_JJ change_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ very_RG difficult_JJ to_TO say_VVI with_IW certainty_NN1 what_DDQ they_PPHS2 were_VBDR at_II any_DD particular_JJ moment_NN1 ._. 
Above_II all_DB ,_, they_PPHS2 can_VM not_XX be_VBI understood_VVN &quot;_" with_IW the_AT politics_NN1 left_VVD out_RP ._. 
&quot;_" &quot;_" The_AT Constitution_NN1 has_VHZ proved_VVN adaptable_JJ to_II changing_VVG political_JJ conditions_NN2 ._. 
In_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, however_RR ,_, its_APPGE relevance_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN questioned_VVN ._. 
The_AT patchwork_NN1 quilt_NN1 of_IO powers_NN2 and_CC relationships_NN2 stipulated_VVN by_II the_AT Constitution_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN criticized_VVN for_IF being_VBG neither_RR useful_JJ nor_CC relevant_JJ in_II the_AT political_JJ environment_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC 1980s_MC2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ ,_, as_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, pressure_NN1 from_II many_DA2 influential_JJ sources_NN2 for_IF the_AT Constitution_NN1 not_XX only_RR to_TO be_VBI further_RRR amended_VVN but_CCB also_RR to_TO be_VBI radically_RR altered_VVN ._. 
In_II some_DD cases_NN2 there_EX are_VBR calls_NN2 for_IF a_AT1 new_JJ constitutional_JJ settlement_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ this_DD1 pressure_NN1 for_IF change_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE implications_NN2 that_CST subsequent_JJ chapters_NN2 will_VM explore_VVI ._. 
THE_AT ELECTORAL_JJ SYSTEM_NN1 Fair_NN1 and_CC Workable_JJ ?_? 
IN_II THE_AT UNITED_NP1 STATES_NP1 ,_, citizens_NN2 are_VBR presented_VVN with_IW the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO go_VVI to_II the_AT polls_NN2 at_II frequent_JJ and_CC fixed_JJ intervals_NN2 to_TO elect_VVI at_II national_JJ ,_, state_VV0 ,_, and_CC local_JJ levels_NN2 a_AT1 host_NN1 of_IO legislators_NN2 ,_, executive_NN1 heads_NN2 ,_, councilpersons_NN2 ,_, officials_NN2 ,_, and_CC even_RR ,_, in_II some_DD states_NN2 ,_, judges_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN estimated_VVN that_CST there_EX are_VBR approximately_RR 1_MC1 million_NNO elective_JJ offices_NN2 to_TO be_VBI filled_VVN ._. 
In_II any_DD given_JJ year_NNT1 there_EX may_VM be_VBI 120,000_MC or_CC 130,000_MC elections_NN2 held_VVD ,_, most_DAT of_IO them_PPHO2 for_IF local_JJ school_NN1 boards_NN2 ._. 
Before_II polling_NN1 day_NNT1 ,_, the_AT citizen_NN1 is_VBZ faced_VVN with_IW a_AT1 lengthy_JJ election_NN1 campaign_NN1 :_: there_EX are_VBR primary_JJ campaigns_NN2 ,_, the_AT primary_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, the_AT general_JJ election_NN1 campaign_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT general_JJ election_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
The_AT presidential_JJ election_NN1 campaign_NN1 lasts_VVZ for_IF nearly_RR a_AT1 year_NNT1 ;_; with_IW all_DB the_AT preplanning_NN1 ,_, advance_VV0 publicity_NN1 ,_, and_CC fund_NN1 raising_NN1 it_PPH1 lasts_VVZ for_IF much_RR longer_RRR ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT short_JJ interval_NN1 between_II elections_NN2 ,_, campaigns_NN2 for_IF the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 House_NN1 of_IO Representatives_NN2 are_VBR virtually_RR continuous_JJ ._. 
Once_RR in_II the_AT polling_NN1 booth_NN1 ,_, the_AT voter_NN1 is_VBZ faced_VVN with_IW a_AT1 daunting_JJ array_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 :_: given_VVN the_AT number_NN1 of_IO offices_NN2 to_TO be_VBI filled_VVN and_CC the_AT number_NN1 of_IO people_NN seeking_VVG to_TO fill_VVI them_PPHO2 ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO names_NN2 may_VM be_VBI a_AT1 three-figure_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
Voting_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE subsequent_JJ tabulation_NN1 is_VBZ much_RR eased_VVN by_II the_AT use_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 machines_NN2 ._. 
Choosing_VVG between_II Republican_NN1 and_CC Democratic_JJ candidates_NN2 is_VBZ not_XX always_RR an_AT1 easy_JJ task_NN1 ,_, and_CC ticket_NN1 splitting_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 well-recognized_JJ phenomenon_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA characteristics_NN2 of_IO United_NP1 States_NP1 elections_NN2 are_VBR well_RR known_VVN ._. 
They_PPHS2 have_VH0 little_RR in_II31 common_II32 with_II33 those_DD2 of_IO British_JJ elections_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 citizen_NN1 may_VM have_VHI the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI in_II a_AT1 national_JJ election_NN1 only_RR once_RR every_AT1 five_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
That_DD1 election_NN1 is_VBZ for_IF the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP and_CC the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP alone_JJ ._. 
The_AT members_NN2 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Lords_NP are_VBR not_XX elected_VVN :_: they_PPHS2 serve_VV0 by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO birth_NN1 or_CC ,_, for_IF life_NN1 peers_NN2 ,_, by_II appointment_NN1 for_IF life_NN1 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT separate_JJ election_NN1 of_IO the_AT executive_NN1 :_: the_AT leader_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP is_VBZ invited_VVN to_TO form_VVI a_AT1 government_NN1 ._. 
(_( The_AT choice_NN1 of_IO party_NN1 leaders_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 matter_NN1 for_IF the_AT parties_NN2 themselves_PPX2 ._. )_) 
The_AT date_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 election_NN1 is_VBZ now_RT known_VVN until_II a_AT1 few_DA2 weeks_NNT2 before_II the_AT event_NN1 ,_, when_CS the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 recommends_VVZ a_AT1 dissolution_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 to_II the_AT Queen_NN1 ._. 
Although_CS there_EX is_VBZ much_RR anticipatory_JJ planning_NN1 ,_, the_AT election_NN1 campaign_NN1 proper_JJ extends_VVZ over_RP approximately_RR three_MC weeks_NNT2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR no_AT primaries_NN2 :_: candidate_NN1 selection_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 internal_JJ matter_NN1 for_IF the_AT parties_NN2 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 shall_VM see_VVI ,_, there_EX are_VBR also_RR significant_JJ differences_NN2 in_II registration_NN1 procedures_NN2 ._. 
The_AT campaign_NN1 is_VBZ fought_VVN on_II a_AT1 national_JJ ,_, and_CC party_NN1 ,_, basis_NN1 ._. 
Funding_NN1 and_CC organization_NN1 in_II the_AT constituencies_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 nationally_RR is_VBZ undertaken_VVN by_II the_AT established_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, not_XX by_II individual_JJ candidates_NN2 or_CC campaign_NN1 organizations_NN2 created_VVN by_II the_AT candidates_NN2 ._. 
The_AT amount_NN1 of_IO money_NN1 spent_VVN on_II electioneering_VVG during_II this_DD1 period_NN1 is_VBZ strictly_RR limited_VVN by_II law_NN1 ._. 
On_II polling_NN1 day_NNT1 ,_, the_AT elector_NN1 is_VBZ faced_VVN with_IW a_AT1 small_JJ ballot_NN1 slip_NN1 on_II which_DDQ are_VBR printed_VVN the_AT names_NN2 usually_RR of_IO only_RR three_MC or_CC four_MC candidates_NN2 (_( Six_MC or_CC more_DAR candidates_NN2 standing_VVG in_II any_DD one_MC1 constituency_NN1 would_VM be_VBI unusual_JJ ._. )_) 
The_AT voter_NN1 places_VVZ his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE cross_NN1 besides_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 of_IO them_PPHO2 ._. 
With_IW each_DD1 elector_NN1 having_VHG only_RR one_MC1 vote_NN1 to_TO cast_VVI for_IF only_RR one_MC1 candidate_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ no_AT such_DA thing_NN1 as_CSA ticket_NN1 splitting_NN1 ._. 
At_II the_AT close_NN1 of_IO polling_NN1 ,_, the_AT votes_NN2 are_VBR collected_VVN in_II one_MC1 central_JJ area_NN1 in_II each_DD1 constituency_NN1 and_CC counted_VVN by_II hand_NN1 ._. 
The_AT process_NN1 of_IO counting_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 proficient_JJ one_PN1 and_CC a_AT1 sufficient_JJ number_NN1 of_IO results_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR announced_VVN within_II a_AT1 few_DA2 hours_NNT2 of_IO the_AT close_NN1 of_IO the_AT polls_NN2 to_TO know_VVI which_DDQ party_NN1 has_VHZ won_VVN the_AT election_NN1 ._. 
If_CS the_AT party_NN1 in_II office_NN1 has_VHZ lost_VVN the_AT prime_JJ minister_NN1 goes_VVZ to_II Buckingham_NP1 Palace_NN1 to_TO tender_VVI his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE resignation_NN1 ._. 
The_AT leader_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 newly_RR returned_VVN with_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 is_VBZ then_RT summoned_VVN ._. 
The_AT new_JJ cabinet_NN1 and_CC other_JJ ministerial_JJ appointments_NN2 are_VBR announced_VVN within_II a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO days_NNT2 ,_, sometimes_RT within_II a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO hours_NNT2 ._. 
Within_II a_AT1 month_NNT1 of_IO an_AT1 election_NN1 being_VBG called_VVN ,_, Britain_NP1 may_VM find_VVI itself_PPX1 with_IW a_AT1 new_JJ government_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 elector_NN1 in_II Britain_NP1 has_VHZ more_DAR opportunity_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI in_II local_JJ elections_NN2 than_CSN in_II national_JJ ones_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR fixed_JJ terms_NN2 and_CC the_AT elector_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT chance_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI for_IF members_NN2 of_IO councils_NN2 at_II district_NN1 and_CC county_NN1 (_( or_CC metropolitan_JJ )_) levels_NN2 and_CC sometimes_RT at_II parish_NN1 level_NN1 as_RR21 well_RR22 ._. 
However_RR ,_, only_JJ council_NN1 members_NN2 (_( councillors_NN2 )_) are_VBR elected_VVN ;_; no_AT executive_NN1 officers_NN2 are_VBR subject_II21 to_II22 election_NN1 ._. 
Councils_NN2 choose_VV0 their_APPGE own_DA chairmen_NN2 and_CC the_AT chief_JJ administrative_JJ officials_NN2 are_VBR appointed_VVN professionals_NN2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ no_AT election_NN1 of_IO any_DD local_JJ official_NN1 ,_, be_VBI it_PPH1 police_VV0 chief_NN1 ,_, register_NN1 of_IO wills_NN2 ,_, city_NN1 auditor_NN1 ,_, or_CC judge_NN1 ._. 
The_AT one_MC1 similarity_NN1 between_II local_JJ elections_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 and_CC the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 is_VBZ the_AT turnout_NN1 :_: it_PPH1 is_VBZ very_RG low_JJ ,_, in_II some_DD instances_NN2 as_RG low_JJ as_CSA 10%_NNU of_IO eligible_JJ electors_NN2 ._. 
The_AT essential_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO national_JJ elections_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC Britain_NP1 are_VBR contrasted_VVN in_II Table_NN1 5.1_MC ._. 
Let_VV0 us_PPIO2 consider_VVI in_RP a_RR21 little_RR22 more_RRR detail_VV0 some_DD of_IO the_AT main_JJ features_NN2 of_IO British_JJ elections_NN2 (_( in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, election_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP )_) before_II proceeding_VVG to_II a_AT1 consideration_NN1 of_IO the_AT current_JJ controversy_NN1 surrounding_VVG the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
As_CSA we_PPIS2 have_VH0 seen_VVN (_( Chapter_NN1 3_MC )_) ,_, the_AT franchise_NN1 was_VBDZ variously_RR extended_VVN in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 ._. 
The_AT basis_NN1 on_II which_DDQ the_AT vote_NN1 was_VBDZ given_VVN was_VBDZ that_DD1 of_IO property_NN1 ._. 
Not_XX until_CS 1918_MC was_VBDZ universal_JJ manhood_NN1 suffrage_NN1 introduced_VVN on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO (_( six_MC months_NNT2 '_GE )_) residence_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT same_DA year_NNT1 ,_, women_NN2 aged_II 30_MC and_CC over_RP ,_, if_CS already_RR local_JJ government_NN1 electors_NN2 or_CC married_JJ to_II such_DA electors_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR given_VVN a_AT1 vote_NN1 in_II general_JJ elections_NN2 ._. 
The_AT vote_NN1 was_VBDZ extended_VVN to_II all_DB women_NN2 aged_II 21_MC and_CC over_RP in_II 1928_MC ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ extended_VVN to_II 18-_NN1 to_II 20-year-olds_NN2 in_II 1969_MC ._. 
The_AT various_JJ extensions_NN2 of_IO the_AT franchise_NN1 during_II the_AT course_NN1 of_IO the_AT century_NNT1 ,_, much_DA1 more_DAR radical_NN1 in_II numerical_JJ terms_NN2 than_CSN the_AT various_JJ extensions_NN2 of_IO the_AT previous_JJ century_NNT1 ,_, and_CC the_AT growth_NN1 in_II population_NN1 have_VH0 resulted_VVN in_II the_AT electorate_NN1 growing_VVG from_II one_MC1 of_IO 6,730,935_MC in_II 1900_MC to_II one_MC1 of_IO 42,703,019_MC in_II 1983_MC ._. 
The_AT 1949_MC Representation_NN1 of_IO the_AT People_NN Act_VV0 effectively_RR brought_VVN to_II final_JJ fruition_NN1 the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" one_MC1 person_NN1 one_MC1 vote_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT only_JJ people_NN excluded_VVN from_II the_AT franchise_NN1 are_VBR peers_NN2 (_( they_PPHS2 have_VH0 their_APPGE own_DA House_NN1 )_) ,_, imprisoned_JJ criminals_NN2 ,_, those_DD2 of_IO unsound_JJ mind_NN1 ,_, people_NN convicted_VVN of_IO certain_JJ election_NN1 offences_NN2 ,_, and_CC aliens_NN2 ._. 
THE_AT ELECTORAL_JJ STRUCTURE_NN1 Electors_NN2 In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO exercise_VVI one_PN1 's_GE right_JJ to_TO vote_VVI it_PPH1 is_VBZ necessary_JJ to_TO be_VBI on_II the_AT electoral_JJ register_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ is_VBZ compiled_VVN annually_RR ._. 
Each_DD1 year_NNT1 every_AT1 household_NN1 receives_VVZ an_AT1 electoral_JJ registration_NN1 form_NN1 ._. 
The_AT head_NN1 of_IO the_AT household_NN1 is_VBZ required_VVN by_II law_NN1 to_TO complete_VVI it_PPH1 and_CC to_TO list_VVI all_DB those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR resident_JJ in_II the_AT dwelling_NN1 on_II October_NPM1 10_MC of_IO that_DD1 year_NNT1 and_CC are_VBR eligible_JJ for_IF inclusion_NN1 ,_, including_II those_DD2 who_PNQS will_VM attain_VVI the_AT age_NN1 of_IO 18_MC years_NNT2 during_II the_AT period_NN1 that_CST the_AT new_JJ register_NN1 comes_VVZ into_II effect_NN1 ._. 
These_DD2 forms_NN2 are_VBR returned_VVN by_II mail_NN1 to_II the_AT Registration_NN1 Officer_NN1 for_IF the_AT Constituency_NN1 ._. 
The_AT register_NN1 then_RT compiled_VVN is_VBZ open_JJ for_IF inspection_NN1 once_RR compiled_VVN ,_, which_DDQ takes_VVZ effect_NN1 the_AT following_JJ February_NPM1 ,_, and_CC is_VBZ in_II force_NN1 for_IF one_MC1 year_NNT1 ._. 
Electors_NN2 who_PNQS move_VV0 to_II another_DD1 constituency_NN1 during_II the_AT course_NN1 of_IO the_AT year_NNT1 are_VBR entitled_VVN to_TO apply_VVI to_TO vote_VVI by_II post_NN1 in_II the_AT constituency_NN1 in_II which_DDQ they_PPHS2 are_VBR registered_VVN ._. 
Compared_VVN with_IW registration_NN1 practice_NN1 in_II most_DAT American_JJ states_NN2 ,_, the_AT British_JJ method_NN1 is_VBZ both_RR simple_JJ and_CC effective_JJ ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 people_NN die_VV0 ,_, sometimes_RT fail_VV0 to_TO complete_VVI the_AT registration_NN1 forms_VVZ correctly_RR ,_, or_CC move_VV0 without_IW applying_VVG for_IF a_AT1 postal_JJ vote_NN1 ,_, the_AT electoral_JJ register_NN1 is_VBZ never_RR 100%_NNU accurate_JJ ._. 
However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN estimated_VVN that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ 93%_NNU accurate_JJ when_CS published_VVN ,_, declining_VVG to_II 85%_NNU accuracy_NN1 on_II the_AT last_MD day_NNT1 of_IO validity_NN1 ._. 
In_II registration_NN1 there_EX is_VBZ no_AT procedure_NN1 analogous_JJ to_II the_AT American_JJ practice_NN1 of_IO registering_VVG as_II a_AT1 Republican_NN1 ,_, Democrat_NN1 ,_, or_CC Independent_NP1 :_: given_VVN the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO primary_JJ elections_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT logical_JJ reason_NN1 why_RRQ one_PN1 should_VM ._. 
The_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 is_VBZ divided_VVN into_II single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR currently_RR 650_MC ,_, though_CS the_AT number_NN1 can_VM and_CC does_VDZ vary_VVI ._. 
From_II 1974_MC until_II 1983_MC there_EX were_VBDR 635_MC ,_, and_CC at_II one_MC1 time_NNT1 earlier_RRR in_II this_DD1 century_NNT1 there_EX were_VBDR over_RG 700_MC ._. 
Constituencies_NN2 The_AT drawing_NN1 of_IO boundaries_NN2 is_VBZ the_AT responsibility_NN1 of_IO bodies_NN2 known_VVN as_II boundary_NN1 commissions_NN2 :_: there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 commission_NN1 each_DD1 for_IF England_NP1 ,_, Scotland_NP1 ,_, Wales_NP1 ,_, and_CC Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ._. 
Each_DD1 commission_NN1 is_VBZ chaired_VVN by_II the_AT Speaker_NN1 of_IO the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP (_( a_AT1 nonparty_JJ figure_NN1 )_) and_CC each_DD1 has_VHZ a_AT1 judge_NN1 as_CSA deputy_NN1 chairman_NN1 ._. 
Assistant_JJ commissioners_NN2 ,_, usually_RR lawyers_NN2 ,_, are_VBR appointed_VVN to_TO supervize_VVI local_JJ inquiries_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT staff_NN of_IO the_AT commissions_NN2 includes_VVZ the_AT country_NN1 's_GE main_JJ officials_NN2 dealing_VVG with_IW population_NN1 and_CC geographic_JJ surveys_NN2 ._. 
In_II redrawing_VVG boundaries_NN2 the_AT commissions_NN2 are_VBR guided_VVN by_II rules_NN2 laid_VVN down_RP by_II act_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR supposed_JJ to_TO ensure_VVI that_CST constituencies_NN2 are_VBR as_RG equal_JJ as_CSA possible_JJ in_II size_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE electorates_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, they_PPHS2 are_VBR permitted_VVN to_TO deviate_VVI from_II this_DD1 if_CS special_JJ geographic_JJ considerations_NN2 (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, the_AT size_NN1 ,_, shape_NN1 ,_, and_CC accessibility_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 constituency_NN1 )_) appear_VV0 to_TO render_VVI such_DA a_AT1 deviation_NN1 desirable_JJ ._. 
Other_JJ rules_NN2 further_RRR complicate_VV0 the_AT position_NN1 ._. 
The_AT commissioners_NN2 are_VBR enjoined_VVN not_XX to_TO cross_VVI local_JJ authority_NN1 boundaries_NN2 in_II creating_VVG parliamentary_JJ constituencies_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 also_RR have_VH0 to_TO work_VVI within_II the_AT context_NN1 of_IO regional_JJ disparities_NN2 ._. 
To_TO compensate_VVI for_IF the_AT absence_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE own_DA national_JJ assembly_NN1 ._. 
Scot_NP1 land_NN1 has_VHZ a_AT1 great_JJ number_NN1 of_IO constituencies_NN2 allocated_VVN to_II it_PPH1 than_CSN its_APPGE population_NN1 strictly_RR allows_VVZ ,_, and_CC the_AT same_DA exception_NN1 applies_VVZ to_II Wales_NP1 ._. 
Hence_RR ,_, the_AT electoral_JJ quota_NN1 (_( the_AT national_JJ electorate_NN1 divided_VVN by_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 )_) is_VBZ greater_JJR in_II England_NP1 than_CSN in_II Scotland_NP1 or_CC Wales_NP1 ._. 
Under_II existing_JJ legislation_NN1 ,_, the_AT commissioners_NN2 are_VBR required_VVN to_TO review_VVI electoral_JJ boundaries_NN2 every_AT1 10-15_MCMC years_NNT2 ._. 
(_( It_PPH1 used_VMK to_TO be_VBI at_II more_RGR frequent_JJ intervals_NN2 ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 was_VBDZ found_VVN to_TO be_VBI too_RG disruptive_JJ ._. )_) 
Before_II making_VVG their_APPGE recommendations_NN2 ,_, the_AT commissioners_NN2 consider_VV0 submissions_NN2 from_II interested_JJ bodies_NN2 ,_, primarily_RR the_AT local_JJ political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
If_CS a_AT1 proposed_JJ change_NN1 has_VHZ the_AT support_NN1 of_IO the_AT local_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ usual_JJ for_IF the_AT commissioners_NN2 to_TO accept_VVI it_PPH1 ._. 
Once_CS they_PPHS2 have_VH0 completed_VVN their_APPGE work_NN1 ,_, their_APPGE recommendations_NN2 are_VBR presented_VVN to_II a_AT1 government_NN1 minister_NN1 ,_, the_AT home_NN1 secretary_NN1 ,_, who_PNQS is_VBZ then_RT required_VVN to_TO lay_VVI them_PPHO2 before_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP for_IF approval_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR rarely_RR free_JJ of_IO criticism_NN1 ,_, and_CC in_II 1969_MC the_AT Labour_JJ home_NN1 secretary_NN1 advised_VVD his_APPGE supporters_NN2 in_II the_AT House_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI against_II the_AT commission_NN1 's_GE recommendations_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ they_PPHS2 did_VDD ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 ,_, the_AT 1970_MC general_JJ election_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX fought_VVN on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT new_JJ boundaries_NN2 recommended_VVN by_II the_AT boundary_NN1 commissioners_NN2 ._. 
The_AT recommendations_NN2 were_VBDR implemented_VVN in_II the_AT new_JJ Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT next_MD review_NN1 by_II the_AT commission_NN1 was_VBDZ completed_VVN in_II 1982_MC and_CC challenged_VVN in_II the_AT courts_NN2 by_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 contended_VVD that_CST the_AT commissioners_NN2 had_VHD acted_VVN outside_II the_AT terms_NN2 of_IO the_AT act_NN1 by_II giving_VVG undue_JJ weight_NN1 to_II some_DD of_IO the_AT criteria_NN2 for_IF determining_JJ boundaries_NN2 as_II21 against_II22 others_NN2 ._. 
(_( There_EX were_VBDR some_DD notable_JJ disparities_NN2 in_II constituency_NN1 sizes_NN2 ._. )_) 
The_AT courts_NN2 determined_VVN that_CST the_AT commissioners_NN2 had_VHD exercised_VVN properly_RR the_AT wide_JJ discretion_NN1 given_VVN them_PPHO2 by_II Parliament_NN1 and_CC rejected_VVN the_AT case_NN1 ._. 
The_AT commission_NN1 's_GE recommendations_NN2 were_VBDR subsequently_RR approved_VVN by_II Parliament_NN1 and_CC the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 was_VBDZ fought_VVN on_II the_AT new_JJ boundaries_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 combination_NN1 of_IO population_NN1 shifts_NN2 (_( about_II three-quarters_MF of_IO a_AT1 million_NNO people_NN move_VV0 house_VV0 every_AT1 year_NNT1 in_II Britain_NP1 )_) ,_, the_AT disparity_NN1 among_II constituency_NN1 electorates_NN2 recommended_VVN by_II the_AT commissioners_NN2 in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 other_JJ criteria_NN2 (_( maintaining_VVG local_JJ government_NN1 boundaries_NN2 and_CC the_AT like_JJ )_) ,_, the_AT lapse_NN1 of_IO time_NNT1 between_II reviews_NN2 ,_, ad_RA the_AT disparity_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 allocated_VVN to_II the_AT different_JJ countries_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 has_VHZ meant_VVN that_CST there_EX are_VBR often_RR marked_JJ differences_NN2 among_II the_AT sizes_NN2 of_IO electorates_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, the_AT electoral_JJ quota_NN1 for_IF English_JJ constituencies_NN2 was_VBDZ a_RR21 little_RR22 under_RG 70,000_MC ._. 
The_AT constituency_NN1 of_IO Bromsgrove_NP1 and_CC Redditch_NP1 (_( constituencies_NN2 are_VBR given_VVN names_NN2 ,_, not_XX numbers_NN2 )_) had_VHD an_AT1 electorate_NN1 of_IO 104,375_MC ,_, while_CS Newcastle-upon-Tyne_NP1 Central_JJ had_VHD an_AT1 electoral_JJ register_NN1 of_IO but_CCB 23,678_MC ._. 
(_( The_AT smallest_JJT electorate_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II Scotland_NP1 Glasgow_NP1 Central_JJ ,_, with_IW 19,826_MC electors_NN2 ._. )_) 
Even_RR after_II the_AT redrawing_NN1 of_IO boundaries_NN2 in_II 1983_MC ,_, there_EX were_VBDR still_RR some_DD significant_JJ disparities_NN2 ._. 
Of_IO the_AT seats_NN2 ,_, 5%_NNU deviated_VVD from_II the_AT electoral_JJ quota_NN1 by_II 20%_NNU (_( though_CS this_DD1 was_VBDZ down_RP from_II the_AT 39%_NNU of_IO seats_NN2 that_CST had_VHD deviated_VVN by_II that_RG much_DA1 on_II the_AT 1982_MC register_NN1 ._. )_) 
The_AT Isle_NNL1 of_IO Wight_NP1 ,_, an_AT1 English_JJ constituency_NN1 ,_, had_VHD an_AT1 electorate_NN1 of_IO 94,768_MC ,_, while_CS the_AT Scottish_JJ constituency_NN1 of_IO the_AT Western_NP1 Isles_NN2 ,_, difficult_JJ to_TO enlarge_VVI for_IF geographic_JJ reasons_NN2 ,_, had_VHD but_CCB 22,901_MC electors_NN2 ._. 
Election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 are_VBR short_JJ ,_, sharp_JJ ,_, and_CC dominated_VVN by_II the_AT political_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
In_II British_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, unlike_II those_DD2 in_II America_NP1 ,_, the_AT personalities_NN2 of_IO candidates_NN2 (_( except_II21 for_II22 national_JJ leaders_NN2 )_) and_CC their_APPGE personal_JJ wealth_NN1 play_NN1 but_CCB a_AT1 marginal_JJ role_NN1 ._. 
The_AT campaign_NN1 is_VBZ fought_VVN in_II practice_NN1 on_II a_AT1 national_JJ level_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, the_AT candidates_NN2 and_CC the_AT local_JJ campaigns_NN2 serving_VVG to_TO reinforce_VVI the_AT national_JJ campaigns_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE leaders_NN2 ._. 
Candidates_NN2 are_VBR selected_VVN locally_RR by_II the_AT parties_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT parties_NN2 provide_VV0 the_AT finance_NN1 and_CC the_AT organization_NN1 for_IF the_AT campaign_NN1 ._. 
Election_NN1 expenses_NN2 are_VBR limited_VVN by_II statute_NN1 and_CC have_VH0 been_VBN since_II 1883_MC ._. 
Expenditure_NN1 is_VBZ permitted_VVN only_RR where_CS authorized_VVN by_II a_AT1 candidate_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 candidate_NN1 's_GE election_NN1 agent_NN1 ,_, or_CC a_AT1 person_NN1 authorized_VVN in_II writing_VVG by_II the_AT agent_NN1 ._. 
The_AT maximum_JJ permitted_JJ expenditure_NN1 is_VBZ calculated_VVN on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 fixed_JJ sum_NN1 plus_II a_AT1 limited_JJ amount_NN1 based_VVN on_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO electors_NN2 :_: in_II an_AT1 average-sized_JJ English_JJ county_NN1 constituency_NN1 in_II 1983_MC ,_, the_AT ceiling_NN1 was_VBDZ approximately_RR 4,700_MC (_( just_RR over_RG $7,000_NNU )_) ._. 
There_EX are_VBR certain_JJ types_NN2 of_IO expenditure_NN1 that_CST are_VBR illegal_JJ (_( for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, paying_VVG an_AT1 elector_NN1 to_TO exhibit_VVI an_AT1 election_NN1 poster_NN1 or_CC paying_VVG for_IF voters_NN2 to_TO be_VBI taken_VVN to_II and_CC from_II the_AT polling_NN1 booths_NN2 )_) ,_, and_CC separate_JJ committees_NN2 to_TO promote_VVI a_AT1 candidate_NN1 are_VBR not_XX permitted_VVN ._. 
Even_RR with_IW the_AT modest_JJ expenditure_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ permitted_VVN ,_, most_DAT candidates_NN2 fail_VV0 to_TO spend_VVI the_AT maximum_NN1 allowed_VVN ._. 
Some_DD devices_NN2 for_IF keeping_VVG costs_NN2 low_JJ are_VBR employed_VVN and_CC these_DD2 can_VM ,_, where_CS required_VVN ,_, provide_VV0 up_II21 to_II22 an_AT1 extra_JJ 20%_NNU of_IO expenditure_NN1 :_: a_AT1 popular_JJ ploy_NN1 is_VBZ to_TO purchase_VVI stationery_NN1 in_II advance_NN1 and_CC then_RT resell_VV0 it_PPH1 cheaply_RR to_II the_AT candidate_NN1 as_CSA second-hand_JJ stock_NN1 ._. 
Few_DA2 candidates_NN2 ,_, though_CS ,_, are_VBR prepared_VVN to_TO run_VVI too_RG many_DA2 risks_NN2 for_II31 fear_II32 of_II33 having_VHG their_APPGE elections_NN2 challenged_VVN and_CC declared_JJ void_NN1 :_: expenses_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI declared_VVN and_CC opponents_NN2 keep_VV0 a_AT1 wary_JJ eye_NN1 open_JJ for_IF any_DD infringement_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 law_NN1 ._. 
Two_MC other_JJ constraints_NN2 also_RR operate_VV0 :_: the_AT parties_NN2 have_VH0 difficulty_NN1 raising_VVG sufficient_JJ money_NN1 to_TO fight_VVI campaigns_NN2 (_( national_JJ and_CC local_JJ appeals_NN2 are_VBR common_JJ when_CS an_AT1 election_NN1 is_VBZ in_II the_AT offing_NN1 )_) and_CC there_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 evidence_NN1 that_CST increased_JJ expenditure_NN1 in_II local_JJ campaigns_NN2 necessarily_RR helps_VVZ win_NN1 elections_NN2 ._. 
Campaigns_NN2 Each_DD1 candidate_NN1 is_VBZ permitted_VVN one_MC1 postage-free_JJ mailing_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 piece_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 literature_NN1 ._. 
Other_JJ literature_NN1 is_VBZ distributed_VVN by_II the_AT unpaid_JJ party_NN1 activists_NN2 ._. 
The_AT main_JJ item_NN1 of_IO literature_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT candidate_NN1 's_GE election_NN1 address_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 will_VM usually_RR incorporate_VVI a_AT1 summary_NN1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ points_NN2 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 's_GE national_JJ election_NN1 manifesto_NN1 ._. 
The_AT candidate_NN1 will_VM spend_VVI most_DAT the_AT campaign_NN1 making_VVG speeches_NN2 throughout_II the_AT constituency_NN1 ,_, not_XX infrequently_RR at_II thinly_RR attended_VVN meetings_NN2 ,_, and_CC canvassing_VVG door_NN1 to_II door_NN1 where_RRQ possible_JJ ._. 
He_PPHS1 or_CC she_PPHS1 will_VM be_VBI aided_VVN by_II volunteers_NN2 who_PNQS do_VD0 doorstep_NN1 canvassing_VVG to_TO try_VVI to_TO determine_VVI where_RRQ supporters_NN2 live_VV0 :_: on_II election_NN1 day_NNT1 they_PPHS2 will_VM keep_VVI a_AT1 running_JJ tab_NN1 on_II who_PNQS has_VHZ voted_VVN in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO ensure_VVI that_DD1 support_NN1 is_VBZ maximized_VVN ._. 
The_AT main_JJ focus_NN1 of_IO the_AT campaign_NN1 is_VBZ a_AT1 national_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT party_NN1 leaders_NN2 will_VM make_VVI regular_JJ and_CC well-publicized_JJ appearances_NN2 throughout_II the_AT country_NN1 ,_, ensuring_VVG that_CST the_AT national_JJ press_NN1 and_CC television_NN1 reporters_NN2 follow_VV0 in_II their_APPGE wake_NN1 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 holding_VVG daily_JJ press_NN1 conferences_NN2 ._. 
The_AT national_JJ party_NN1 organizations_NN2 increasingly_RR make_VV0 use_VVI also_RR of_IO press_NN1 and_CC poster_NN1 advertising_NN1 ._. 
As_CS31 long_CS32 as_CS33 expenditure_NN1 can_VM not_XX be_VBI said_VVN to_TO apply_VVI in_II31 support_II32 of_II33 specific_JJ candidates_NN2 ,_, national_JJ party_NN1 campaigns_NN2 do_VD0 not_XX fall_VVI foul_JJ of_IO the_AT election_NN1 finance_NN1 restrictions_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1979_MC election_NN1 the_AT Labour_JJ and_CC Conservative_JJ national_JJ party_NN1 organizations_NN2 are_VBR estimated_VVN to_TO have_VHI each_DD1 spent_VVN a_RR21 little_RR22 over_II 1_MC1 million_NNO pounds_NN2 on_II the_AT campaign_NN1 ,_, roughly_RR the_AT same_DA amount_NN1 expended_VVN in_II total_NN1 by_II their_APPGE candidates_NN2 in_II the_AT local_JJ campaigns_NN2 ._. 
The_AT largest_JJT single_JJ item_NN1 of_IO expenditure_NN1 was_VBDZ advertising_VVG ._. 
The_AT parties_NN2 enjoyed_VVD also_RR the_AT benefit_NN1 of_IO free_JJ but_CCB limited_JJ television_NN1 time_NNT1 ._. 
Paid_VVN political_JJ advertising_NN1 on_II television_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX allowed_VVN :_: each_DD1 party_NN1 is_VBZ allocated_VVN a_AT1 set_NN1 number_NN1 of_IO 10-minute_JJ party_NN1 political_JJ broadcasts_NN2 that_CST are_VBR transmitted_VVN on_II all_DB television_NN1 channels_NN2 ._. 
The_AT allocation_NN1 of_IO the_AT number_NN1 of_IO broadcasts_NN2 to_II the_AT parties_NN2 is_VBZ a_AT1 somewhat_RR contentious_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
The_AT broadcasts_NN2 themselves_PPX2 are_VBR often_RR regarded_VVN by_II voters_NN2 as_II the_AT least_RGT appetizing_JJ part_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 campaigns_NN2 ._. 
The_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT parties_NN2 '_GE appeal_NN1 to_II the_AT country_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT election_NN1 manifestos_NN2 that_CST they_PPHS2 issue_VV0 ._. 
In_II recent_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, these_DD2 have_VH0 become_VVN increasingly_RR lengthy_JJ and_CC specific_JJ documents_NN2 ,_, detailing_VVG the_AT intended_JJ policies_NN2 and_CC measures_NN2 to_TO be_VBI pursued_VVN by_II a_AT1 party_NN1 if_CS returned_VVN to_II office_NN1 ._. 
They_PPHS2 constitute_VV0 a_AT1 topic_NN1 of_IO some_DD controversy_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN argued_VVN that_CST very_RG few_DA2 electors_NN2 usually_RR read_VV0 them_PPHO2 and_CC that_CST many_DA2 of_IO the_AT commitments_NN2 made_VVD do_VDI not_XX enjoy_VVI widespread_JJ support_NN1 among_II voters_NN2 ,_, even_RR among_II those_DD2 voting_VVG for_IF the_AT parties_NN2 that_CST issued_VVD them_PPHO2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR also_RR viewed_VVN by_II some_DD observers_NN2 as_CSA hostages_NN2 for_IF the_AT future_NN1 ,_, parties_NN2 in_II office_NN1 being_VBG perceived_VVN as_CSA often_RR doing_VDG the_AT reverse_NN1 of_IO what_DDQ was_VBDZ promised_VVN in_II their_APPGE manifestos_NN2 ._. 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, they_PPHS2 constitute_VV0 something_PN1 of_IO as_CSA guide_NN1 to_II interested_JJ bodies_NN2 ad_RA provide_VV0 a_AT1 framework_NN1 for_IF the_AT main_JJ items_NN2 of_IO legislation_NN1 introduced_VVN by_II an_AT1 incoming_JJ government_NN1 in_II the_AT first_MD session_NNT1 or_CC two_MC of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ Parliament_NN1 :_: most_DAT manifesto_NN1 promises_NN2 are_VBR usually_RR implemented_VVN ._. 
A_AT1 more_RGR relevant_JJ criticism_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 manifesto_NN1 promises_NN2 may_VM not_XX address_VVI themselves_PPX2 to_II the_AT country_NN1 's_GE real_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
Some_DD would_VM argue_VVI that_DD1 ,_, by_II virtue_NN1 of_IO the_AT manner_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE compilation_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE utilization_NN1 as_II a_AT1 means_NN of_IO furthering_VVG the_AT adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT parties_NN2 ,_, manifestos_NN2 add_VV0 to_II those_DD2 problems_NN2 rather_II21 than_II22 offering_VVG solutions_NN2 ._. 
Any_DD citizen_NN1 aged_II 21_MC years_NNT2 or_CC over_RP is_VBZ eligible_JJ to_TO be_VBI a_AT1 candidate_NN1 for_IF election_NN1 to_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ._. 
There_EX are_VBR certain_JJ limited_JJ exceptions_NN2 ._. 
Precluded_VVN from_II serving_VVG in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP are_VBR those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR disqualified_VVN from_II voting_NN1 ,_, as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 policemen_NN2 ,_, civil_JJ servants_NN2 ,_, judges_NN2 ,_, members_NN2 of_IO the_AT boards_NN2 of_IO nationalized_JJ industries_NN2 ,_, undischarged_JJ bankrupts_NN2 ,_, members_NN2 of_IO the_AT armed_JJ services_NN2 ,_, and_CC clergy_NN2 of_IO the_AT Churches_NN2 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, Scotland_NP1 ,_, Ireland_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT Roman_JJ Catholic_JJ Church_NN1 ._. 
The_AT exclusion_NN1 of_IO public_JJ servants_NN2 has_VHZ an_AT1 acceptable_JJ rationale_NN1 to_TO reinforce_VVI it_PPH1 ;_; they_PPHS2 are_VBR free_JJ to_TO resign_VVI their_APPGE positions_NN2 should_VM they_PPHS2 wish_VVI to_TO stand_VVI for_IF election_NN1 ._. 
The_AT exclusion_NN1 of_IO certain_JJ clergy_NN2 is_VBZ less_RGR easy_JJ to_TO justify_VVI (_( a_AT1 relic_NN1 of_IO the_AT time_NNT1 when_RRQ religious_JJ disputes_NN2 were_VBDR at_II the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO national_JJ affairs_NN2 )_) ,_, as_CSA is_VBZ the_AT exclusion_NN1 of_IO 18-_NN1 to_II 20-year-olds_NN2 :_: when_RRQ the_AT voting_NN1 age_NN1 was_VBDZ lowered_VVN in_II 1969_MC ,_, the_AT age_NN1 of_IO eligibility_NN1 for_IF candidature_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX ._. 
To_TO be_VBI a_AT1 candidate_NN1 one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO obtain_VVI the_AT signature_NN1 of_IO 10_MC electors_NN2 in_II the_AT constituency_NN1 and_CC submit_VV0 a_AT1 deposit_NN1 of_IO 150_MC (_( approximately_RR $225_NNU )_) ,_, returnable_JJ in_II the_AT event_NN1 of_IO receiving_JJ one-eighth_MF of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, unlike_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR no_AT residence_NN1 requirements_NN2 :_: hence_RR ,_, parties_NN2 enjoy_VV0 a_AT1 wider_JJR range_NN1 of_IO choice_NN1 in_II the_AT selection_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 ._. 
Candidates_NN2 In_II practice_NN1 ,_, candidates_NN2 are_VBR party_NN1 candidates_NN2 ._. 
As_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 innovation_NN1 introduced_VVN in_II 1969_MC ,_, this_DD1 is_VBZ now_RT more_RGR formally_RR recognized_VVD :_: candidates_NN2 are_VBR permitted_VVN to_TO include_VVI their_APPGE party_NN1 designation_NN1 on_II the_AT ballot_NN1 paper_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ generally_RR assumed_VVN that_CST an_AT1 individual_JJ candidate_NN1 has_VHZ little_RR influence_VV0 on_II voting_NN1 behavior_NN1 :_: party_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT decisive_JJ factor_NN1 ,_, though_CS the_AT candidate_NN1 can_VM have_VHI some_DD impact_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1979_MC and_CC 1983_MC elections_NN2 there_EX were_VBDR examples_NN2 of_IO locally_RR popular_JJ candidates_NN2 holding_VVG their_APPGE marginal_JJ seats_NN2 against_II the_AT national_JJ swing_NN1 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, in_II the_AT marginal_JJ constituency_NN1 of_IO Ipswich_NP1 ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ MP_NN1 was_VBDZ elected_VVN on_II both_DB2 occasions_NN2 despite_II the_AT national_JJ swing_NN1 in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 the_AT Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
Such_DA instances_NN2 remain_VV0 rare_JJ ,_, and_CC party_NN1 remains_VVZ the_AT primary_NN1 and_CC almost_RR exclusive_JJ influence_NN1 ._. 
Virtually_RR all_DB constituencies_NN2 (_( the_AT exceptions_NN2 are_VBR in_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 )_) are_VBR contested_VVN by_II Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ candidates_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT general_JJ elections_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, the_AT Liberal_JJ party_NN1 regularly_RR contested_VVN more_DAR than_CSN 500_MC seats_NN2 (_( indeed_RR ,_, over_RG 600_MC in_II October_NPM1 1974_MC )_) ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 the_AT Social_JJ Democratic/Liberal_JJ Alliance_NN1 fielded_VVD candidates_NN2 in_II all_DB 633_MC seats_NN2 in_II Great_NP1 Britain_NP1 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR the_AT only_JJ parties_NN2 to_II each_DD1 obtain_VV0 several_DA2 million_NNO votes_NN2 in_II general_JJ elections_NN2 ._. 
They_PPHS2 are_VBR also_RR the_AT only_JJ ones_NN2 to_TO be_VBI successful_JJ in_II recent_JJ years_NNT2 in_II winning_VVG seats_NN2 in_II England_NP1 ._. 
In_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ the_AT challenge_NN1 of_IO the_AT Scottish_JJ National_JJ Party_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 won_VVD 11_MC seats_NN2 in_II October_NPM1 1974_MC but_CCB only_RR 2_MC in_II 1979_MC and_CC 1983_MC ,_, despite_II fighting_VVG all_DB Scottish_JJ seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II Wales_NP1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ Plaid_NN1 Cymru_NN1 (_( the_AT party_NN1 of_IO Wales_NP1 )_) ,_, which_DDQ won_VVD 3_MC seats_NN2 in_II 1974_MC and_CC 2_MC in_II 1979_MC and_CC 1983_MC ._. 
In_II Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 ,_, the_AT dominant_JJ force_NN1 is_VBZ that_DD1 of_IO the_AT Ulster_NP1 Unionists_NN2 ,_, though_CS divided_VVN now_RT into_II different_JJ parties_NN2 :_: in_II 1983_MC Unionists_NN2 of_IO different_JJ hues_NN2 won_VVD 15_MC of_IO the_AT 17_MC seats_NN2 in_II the_AT province_NN1 ._. 
The_AT 1979_MC and_CC 1983_MC elections_NN2 also_RR witnessed_VVN an_AT1 increase_NN1 in_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 fielded_VVN by_II minor_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, to_II whom_PNQO the_AT 150_MC deposit_NN1 (_( first_MD set_NN1 in_II 1918_MC )_) no_RR21 longer_RR22 serves_VVZ as_II the_AT bar_NN1 to_II nonserious_JJ candidates_NN2 that_CST was_VBDZ intended_VVN ._. 
The_AT Ecology_NN1 party_NN1 fielded_VVD 109_MC candidates_NN2 in_II 1983_MC (_( up_RP from_II 53_MC in_II 1979_MC )_) ,_, the_AT right-wing_JJ National_JJ Front_NN1 60_MC candidates_NN2 (_( though_CS down_RP from_II its_APPGE 1979_MC peak_NN1 of_IO 303_MC candidates_NN2 )_) ,_, the_AT British_JJ National_JJ party_NN1 (_( a_AT1 breakaway_JJ movement_NN1 from_II the_AT National_JJ Front_NN1 )_) 54_MC candidates_NN2 ,_, and_CC the_AT Communist_JJ party_NN1 35_MC candidates_NN2 ._. 
All_DB the_AT candidates_NN2 of_IO these_DD2 parties_NN2 lost_VVD their_APPGE deposits_NN2 ,_, as_CSA did_VDD a_AT1 few_DA2 scattered_JJ independents_NN2 and_CC other_JJ candidates_NN2 standing_VVG under_RP rather_RG esoteric_JJ banners_NN2 ._. 
(_( In_II 1983_MC ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 Justice_NN1 for_IF Divorced_JJ Fathers_NN2 candidate_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 representing_VVG Freddie_NP1 's_GE Alternative_JJ Medicine_NN1 party_NN1 ,_, and_CC another_DD1 standing_NN1 for_IF Law_NN1 and_CC Order_NN1 in_II Gotham_NP1 City_NN1 a_AT1 label_NN1 derived_VVN from_II the_AT old_JJ Batman_NP1 comic_JJ book_NN1 series_NN !_! )_) 
Their_APPGE main_JJ impact_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO lengthen_VVI the_AT ballot_NN1 paper_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1959_MC ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 1,536_MC candidates_NN2 ,_, an_AT1 average_NN1 of_IO 2.4_MC per_II seat_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1983_MC ,_, there_EX were_VBDR 2,579_MC candidates_NN2 an_AT1 average_NN1 of_IO 4_MC per_II seat_NN1 ._. 
The_AT candidates_NN2 of_IO the_AT main_JJ parties_NN2 are_VBR selected_VVN locally_RR ,_, though_CS the_AT national_JJ party_NN1 in_II each_DD1 case_NN1 retains_VVZ some_DD veto_NN1 power_NN1 ._. 
In_II Britain_NP1 ,_, unlike_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ,_, there_EX are_VBR no_AT primary_JJ elections_NN2 and_CC the_AT selection_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 candidate_NN1 is_VBZ in_II practice_NN1 usually_RR in_II the_AT hands_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 small_JJ group_NN1 of_IO party_NN1 activists_NN2 ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 most_DAT seats_NN2 are_VBR safe_JJ seats_NN2 for_IF one_MC1 party_NN1 or_CC another_DD1 ,_, this_DD1 selection_NN1 is_VBZ usually_RR tantamount_JJ to_II election_NN1 ._. 
Within_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ,_, aspiring_VVG candidates_NN2 have_VH0 to_TO be_VBI on_II a_AT1 candidates_NN2 list_NN1 maintained_VVN by_II the_AT party_NN1 's_GE national_JJ headquarters_NN ._. 
(_( A_ZZ1 local_JJ party_NN1 may_VM choose_VVI someone_PN1 not_XX on_II the_AT list_NN1 ,_, but_CCB it_PPH1 must_VM obtain_VVI approval_NN1 from_II the_AT national_JJ party_NN1 for_IF its_APPGE choice_NN1 ._. )_) 
A_AT1 local_JJ Conservative_JJ association_NN1 seeking_VVG a_AT1 candidate_NN1 will_VM invite_VVI applicants_NN2 ,_, and_CC in_II a_AT1 safe_JJ Conservative_JJ seat_NN1 ,_, several_DA2 hundred_NNO aspiring_JJ candidates_NN2 can_VM be_VBI expected_VVN to_TO put_VVI their_APPGE names_NN2 forward_RL ._. 
The_AT association_NN1 will_VM then_RT appoint_VVI a_AT1 selection_NN1 committee_NN1 ,_, usually_RR comprising_VVG representatives_NN2 from_II its_APPGE different_JJ branches_NN2 and_CC associated_JJ groups_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT Young_JJ Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
This_DD1 committee_NN1 will_VM sift_VVI through_II the_AT applications_NN2 and_CC the_AT recommend_VV0 three_MC or_CC more_DAR names_NN2 to_II the_AT executive_NN1 council_NN1 ,_, the_AT main_JJ decision-making_JJ body_NN1 of_IO the_AT association_NN1 ._. 
The_AT council_NN1 may_VM then_RT recommend_VVI one_MC1 name_NN1 for_IF approval_NN1 to_II a_AT1 general_JJ meeting_NN1 of_IO the_AT association_NN1 ,_, or_CC it_PPH1 may_VM put_VVI forward_RL more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 name_NN1 and_CC leave_VV0 it_PPH1 to_II the_AT general_JJ meeting_NN1 to_TO decide_VVI ._. 
Candidate_NN1 Selection_NN1 The_AT researches_NN2 of_IO both_DB2 Austin_NP1 Ranney_NP1 and_CC Michael_NP1 Rush_NP1 have_VH0 found_VVN that_CST ,_, despite_II the_AT political_JJ importance_NN1 of_IO choosing_VVG a_AT1 candidate_NN1 ,_, the_AT political_JJ views_NN2 of_IO applicants_NN2 are_VBR not_XX important_JJ considerations_NN2 in_II the_AT selection_NN1 process_NN1 ._. 
Selection_NN1 committees_NN2 have_VH0 tended_VVN to_TO be_VBI influenced_VVN by_II an_AT1 applicant_NN1 's_GE knowledge_NN1 of_IO the_AT constituency_NN1 ,_, his_APPGE or_CC her_APPGE stature_NN1 and_CC delivery_NN1 of_IO speech_NN1 ,_, and_CC whether_CSW there_EX are_VBR the_AT makings_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 good_JJ &quot;_" constituency_NN1 member_NN1 &quot;_" (_( one_MC1 who_PNQS will_VM represent_VVI diligently_RR the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO constituents_NN2 )_) or_CC ,_, in_II some_DD cases_NN2 ,_, of_IO a_AT1 national_JJ figure_NN1 ._. 
On_II occasions_NN2 ,_, more_RGR esoteric_JJ considerations_NN2 may_VM apply_VVI ,_, as_CSA I_PPIS1 can_VM testify_VVI ,_, having_VHG served_VVN on_II a_AT1 selection_NN1 committee_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Ca_VM n't_XX we_PPIS2 interview_VVI him_PPHO1 ?_? 
He_PPHS1 has_VHZ a_AT1 nice_JJ name_NN1 &quot;_" was_VBDZ one_MC1 comment_NN1 made_VVN during_II the_AT selection_NN1 deliberations_NN2 (_( The_AT response_NN1 :_: a_AT1 polite_JJ &quot;_" no_UH ._. 
&quot;_" )_) Other_JJ influences_NN2 can_VM include_VVI ,_, in_II some_DD areas_NN2 ,_, religion_NN1 and_CC quite_RG often_RR age_NN1 and_CC sex_NN1 :_: local_JJ parties_NN2 are_VBR reluctant_JJ to_TO adopt_VVI women_NN2 candidates_NN2 (_( the_AT folklore_NN1 being_NN1 that_CST women_NN2 voters_NN2 dislike_VV0 voting_VVG for_IF them_PPHO2 )_) and_CC anyone_PN1 aged_VVN under_RG 30_MC or_CC over_RG 50_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ also_RR a_AT1 tendency_NN1 to_TO prefer_VVI married_JJ men_NN2 (_( single_JJ men_NN2 over_RG 30_MC are_VBR considered_VVN somewhat_RR suspect_VV0 )_) ,_, and_CC wives_NN2 are_VBR often_RR asked_VVN to_TO appear_VVI before_II selection_NN1 committees_NN2 ._. 
Because_CS wives_NN2 are_VBR looked_VVN on_II a_AT1 surrogates_NN2 for_IF their_APPGE husbands_NN2 while_CS the_AT latter_DA are_VBR at_II Westminster_NP1 ,_, their_APPGE attitudes_NN2 to_II constituency_NN1 work_NN1 and_CC their_APPGE appearance_NN1 are_VBR considered_VVN important_JJ ._. 
In_II the_AT selection_NN1 I_PPIS1 was_VBDZ involved_JJ in_II ,_, one_MC1 prominent_JJ candidate_NN1 a_AT1 nationally_RR known_VVN figure_NN1 suffered_VVN from_II the_AT poor_JJ impression_NN1 his_APPGE wife_NN1 gave_VVD to_II some_DD of_IO the_AT selectors_NN2 ._. 
Arrogant_JJ or_CC pretentious_JJ wives_NN2 can_VM sometimes_RT kill_VVI the_AT political_JJ ambitions_NN2 of_IO their_APPGE husbands_NN2 ._. 
Although_CS the_AT Labour_JJ candidates_NN2 selected_VVN are_VBR increasingly_RR similar_JJ in_II background_NN1 to_II Conservative_JJ candidates_NN2 ,_, the_AT selection_NN1 procedure_NN1 in_II the_AT Labour_JJ Party_NN1 is_VBZ not_XX quite_RG the_AT same_DA ._. 
A_AT1 local_JJ Labour_JJ party_NN1 will_VM seek_VVI a_AT1 candidate_NN1 by_II inviting_JJ nominations_NN2 ._. 
Nominations_NN2 may_VM be_VBI made_VVN by_II local_JJ ward_NN1 committees_NN2 ,_, party_NN1 groups_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 the_AT women_NN2 's_GE section_NN1 ,_, and_CC by_II affiliated_JJ organizations_NN2 ,_, principally_RR affiliated_JJ trade_NN1 unions_NN2 ._. 
(_( An_AT1 aspiring_JJ candidate_NN1 can_VM approach_VVI such_DA groups_NN2 to_TO solicit_VVI a_AT1 nomination_NN1 ._. )_) 
Once_RR nominations_NN2 are_VBR received_VVN ,_, the_AT executive_NN1 committee_NN1 ,_, responsible_JJ for_IF the_AT day-to-day_JJ running_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 ,_, will_VM draw_VVI up_RP a_AT1 short_JJ list_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 for_IF interview_NN1 ._. 
The_AT final_JJ choice_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN by_II the_AT governing_JJ body_NN1 ,_, the_AT General_JJ Management_NN1 Committee_NN1 ,_, comprising_VVG representatives_NN2 from_II the_AT different_JJ ward_NN1 committees_NN2 and_CC affiliated_JJ organizations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT candidate_NN1 then_RT requires_VVZ the_AT endorsement_NN1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 's_GE National_JJ Executive_NN1 Committee_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1980_MC ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 con_NN1 erence_NN1 approved_VVD the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO mandatory_JJ reselection_NN1 of_IO sitting_VVG Labour_JJ MPs_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ this_DD1 meant_VVD was_VBDZ that_CST sitting_VVG MPs_NNU should_VM no_RR21 longer_RR22 be_VBI reselected_VVN automatically_RR by_II local_JJ parties_NN2 just_RR before_II a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 was_VBDZ held_VVN ._. 
Instead_RR ,_, a_AT1 full_JJ selection_NN1 procedure_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO be_VBI gone_VVN through_RP during_II the_AT lifetime_NNT1 of_IO a_AT1 Parliament_NN1 ,_, thus_RR allowing_VVG other_JJ aspiring_JJ candidates_NN2 to_TO be_VBI considered_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 contentious_JJ issue_NN1 and_CC was_VBDZ generally_RR seen_VVN as_II an_AT1 attempt_NN1 by_II the_AT party_NN1 's_GE left_JJ wing_NN1 to_TO try_VVI to_TO remove_VVI some_DD Labour_JJ members_NN2 of_IO whom_PNQO they_PPHS2 disapproved_VVD ._. 
In_II practice_NN1 ,_, the_AT number_NN1 of_IO members_NN2 denied_VVD reselection_NN1 was_VBDZ small_JJ (_( only_RR seven_MC by_II the_AT time_NNT1 the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 was_VBDZ called_VVN )_) ,_, but_CCB the_AT issue_NN1 served_VVD to_TO highlight_VVI the_AT more_RGR overt_JJ emphasis_NN1 placed_VVN by_II Labour_JJ activists_NN2 on_II a_AT1 candidate_NN1 's_GE political_JJ stance_NN1 than_CSN was_VBDZ the_AT case_NN1 on_II the_AT Conservative_JJ side_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ,_, there_EX is_VBZ no_AT procedure_NN1 for_IF mandatory_JJ reselection_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT Liberal_JJ party_NN1 ,_, selection_NN1 is_VBZ by_II the_AT local_JJ party_NN1 also_RR ,_, with_IW the_AT national_JJ party_NN1 maintaining_VVG an_AT1 approved_JJ list_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, national_JJ approval_NN1 has_VHZ tended_VVN in_II the_AT past_JJ to_TO be_VBI given_VVN without_IW much_DA1 discussion_NN1 ,_, in_II large_JJ part_NN1 because_CS the_AT number_NN1 of_IO aspirants_NN2 for_IF candidatures_NN2 has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN great_JJ :_: the_AT party_NN1 has_VHZ often_RR had_VHN to_TO adopt_VVI whoever_PNQV was_VBDZ willing_JJ to_TO stand_VVI ._. 
The_AT number_NN1 of_IO aspiring_JJ candidates_NN2 increased_VVN in_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, but_CCB so_RG too_RR did_VDD the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 fought_VVD ._. 
In_II many_DA2 cases_NN2 during_II 1974_MC ,_, candidate_NN1 selection_NN1 took_VVD place_NN1 just_RR before_II the_AT election_NN1 campaign_NN1 got_VVD under_RR21 way_RR22 ._. 
Within_II the_AT Social_JJ Democratic_JJ Party_NN1 (_( SDP_NP1 )_) ,_, candidate_NN1 selection_NN1 is_VBZ made_VVN through_II the_AT area_NN1 parties_NN2 ._. 
These_DD2 are_VBR organized_VVN usually_RR on_II a_AT1 multiconstituency_NN1 basis_NN1 and_CC are_VBR responsible_JJ for_IF organizing_VVG and_CC choosing_VVG candidates_NN2 for_IF constituencies_NN2 within_II their_APPGE areas_NN2 ._. 
Unless_CS the_AT task_NN1 is_VBZ delegated_VVN to_II local_JJ (_( constituency_NN1 )_) groups_NN2 ,_, candidates_NN2 are_VBR chosen_VVN by_II a_AT1 postal_JJ ballot_NN1 of_IO all_DB members_NN2 of_IO the_AT area_NN1 party_NN1 ._. 
Candidates_NN2 must_VM be_VBI on_II the_AT party_NN1 's_GE national_JJ list_NN1 of_IO approved_JJ candidates_NN2 and_CC require_VV0 the_AT endorsement_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 of_IO the_AT party_NN1 's_GE regional_JJ committees_NN2 to_TO get_VVI on_II that_DD1 list_NN1 ._. 
When_CS the_AT Alliance_NN1 between_II the_AT Liberals_NN2 and_CC the_AT Social_JJ Democrats_NN2 was_VBDZ formed_VVN in_II 1981_MC a_AT1 formula_NN1 was_VBDZ devised_VVN for_IF allocating_VVG constituencies_NN2 between_II the_AT two_MC parties_NN2 ._. 
Negotiating_VVG the_AT allocation_NN1 encountered_VVN problems_NN2 (_( some_DD entrenched_JJ Liberal_JJ candidates_NN2 were_VBDR unwilling_JJ to_TO step_VVI down_RP in_II31 favor_II32 of_II33 SDP_NP1 candidates_NN2 )_) but_CCB ,_, once_RR achieved_VVN ,_, the_AT local_JJ party_NN1 responsible_JJ for_IF fielding_VVG a_AT1 candidate_NN1 made_VVD its_APPGE choice_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 candidate_NN1 was_VBDZ then_RT endorsed_VVN by_II the_AT other_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
There_EX were_VBDR no_AT joint_JJ selection_NN1 procedures_NN2 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ numerical_JJ parity_NN1 in_II the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 (_( though_CS not_XX necessarily_RR in_II the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 considered_VVD winnable_JJ )_) ,_, and_CC in_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 ,_, each_DD1 party_NN1 fielded_VVD more_DAR than_CSN 300_MC candidates_NN2 ._. 
Only_RR in_II two_MC seats_NN2 (_( one_MC1 in_II Liverpool_NP1 ,_, one_PN1 in_II London_NP1 )_) ,_, where_CS there_EX was_VBDZ some_DD feuding_NN1 between_II the_AT two_MC Alliance_NN1 partners_NN2 ,_, were_VBDR Liberal_JJ and_CC SDP_NP1 candidates_NN2 to_TO be_VBI found_VVN contesting_VVG the_AT same_DA seats_NN2 ._. 
The_AT candidates_NN2 selected_VVN by_II the_AT parties_NN2 tend_VV0 on_II the_AT whole_NN1 to_TO be_VBI middle-aged_JJ ,_, male_NN1 ,_, and_CC white_JJ ._. 
Female_NN1 and_CC nonwhite_NN1 candidates_NN2 are_VBR exceptional_JJ ._. 
The_AT successful_JJ candidates_NN2 more_RRR than_CSN the_AT unsuccessful_JJ ones_NN2 tend_VV0 to_TO be_VBI middle-aged_JJ ,_, university-educated_NN1 (_( as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 public_JJ school-educated_NN1 ,_, in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO Conservatives_NN2 )_) ,_, and_CC drawn_VVN from_II the_AT ranks_NN2 of_IO business_NN1 and_CC the_AT professions_NN2 ._. 
In_II postwar_JJ years_NNT2 there_EX has_VHZ been_VBN a_AT1 tendency_NN1 for_IF MPs_NNU to_TO be_VBI even_RR more_RGR middle-class_JJ than_CSN they_PPHS2 were_VBDR hitherto_RT ._. 
Past_JJ years_NNT2 ,_, according_II21 to_II22 some_DD analysts_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 witnessed_VVN the_AT emergence_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 more_RGR professional_JJ member_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ._. 
In_II each_DD1 of_IO the_AT 650_MC single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 ,_, the_AT method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 employed_VVN is_VBZ the_AT plurality_NN1 or_CC &quot;_" first-past-the-post_JJ &quot;_" method_NN1 ._. 
What_DDQ this_DD1 means_VVZ is_VBZ that_CST the_AT candidate_NN1 receiving_VVG more_DAR votes_NN2 than_CSN any_DD other_JJ candidate_NN1 is_VBZ declared_VVN elected_VVN ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT same_DA method_NN1 as_CSA that_DD1 employed_VVD in_II Senate_NN1 and_CC House_NN1 elections_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 ._. 
Examples_NN2 of_IO constituency_NN1 results_NN2 from_II the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 are_VBR given_VVN in_II Table_NN1 5.3_MC ._. 
Elections_NN2 In_II practice_NN1 ,_, most_DAT seats_NN2 are_VBR considered_VVN to_TO be_VBI safe_JJ seats_NN2 for_IF one_MC1 or_CC other_JJ of_IO the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, the_AT winning_JJ candidate_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN returned_VVN with_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 that_CST represents_VVZ 10%_NNU or_CC more_DAR of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ._. 
In_II the_AT safest_JJT seats_NN2 ,_, the_AT majority_NN1 may_VM constitute_VVI as_RG much_DA1 as_CSA 40%_NNU or_CC 50%_NNU of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ._. 
The_AT constituency_NN1 of_IO Blaenau_NP1 Gwent_NP1 (_( Table_NN1 5.3_MC )_) serves_VVZ as_II a_AT1 good_JJ example_NN1 ._. 
Turnover_NN1 in_II seats_NN2 is_VBZ relatively_RR modest_JJ ._. 
Fewer_DAR than_CSN 5%_NNU of_IO seats_NN2 changed_VVD hands_NN2 in_II the_AT 1970_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ._. 
Even_RR in_II 1983_MC ,_, with_IW the_AT challenge_NN1 of_IO the_AT Social_JJ Democrat/Liberal_NN1 Alliance_NN1 and_CC a_AT1 major_JJ redistribution_NN1 of_IO constituency_NN1 boundaries_NN2 ,_, fewer_DAR than_CSN 16%_NNU of_IO the_AT seats_NN2 changed_VVD hands_NN2 among_II the_AT various_JJ competing_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
The_AT results_NN2 from_II the_AT 650_MC constituencies_NN2 ,_, as_CSA already_RR mentioned_VVN ,_, determine_VV0 which_DDQ party_NN1 will_VM form_VVI the_AT government_NN1 ._. 
In_II all_RR21 but_RR22 one_MC1 of_IO the_AT elections_NN2 since_II 1945_MC ,_, one_MC1 party_NN1 has_VHZ won_VVN a_AT1 absolute_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT seats_NN2 and_CC the_AT leader_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 party_NN1 has_VHZ formed_VVN a_AT1 government_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 achieved_VVN an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 in_II five_MC elections_NN2 ,_, on_II two_MC occasions_NN2 by_II slim_JJ margins_NN2 ,_, and_CC formed_VVD the_AT government_NN1 following_VVG the_AT February_NPM1 1974_MC election_NN1 ,_, in_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 had_VHD more_DAR seats_NN2 than_CSN any_DD other_JJ party_NN1 but_CCB not_XX an_AT1 absolute_JJ majority_NN1 (_( See_VV0 Table_NN1 5.4_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Conservatives_NN2 have_VH0 won_VVN overall_JJ majorities_NN2 ,_, by_II clear_JJ margins_NN2 ,_, in_II six_MC elections_NN2 since_II 1945_MC ,_, including_II the_AT most_RGT recent_JJ ._. 
Three_MC generalizations_NN2 can_VM be_VBI drawn_VVN about_II voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 in_II the_AT four_MC general_JJ elections_NN2 held_VVN in_II the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1950_MC to_II 1959_MC :_: VOTING_VVG BEHAVIOUR_NN1 1_MC1 ._. 
There_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 high_JJ turnout_NN1 of_IO electors_NN2 ;_; 2_MC ._. 
Of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS voted_VVD ,_, virtually_RR all_DB voted_VVN for_IF either_RR the_AT Conservative_NN1 or_CC Labour_JJ parties_NN2 ;_; 3_MC ._. 
The_AT most_RGT significant_JJ predictor_NN1 of_IO party_NN1 voting_NN1 was_VBDZ class_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first_MD two_MC generalizations_NN2 are_VBR borne_VVN out_RP by_II the_AT data_NN in_II Table_NN1 5.2_MC ._. 
More_DAR than_CSN three-quarters_MF of_IO those_DD2 on_II the_AT electoral_JJ register_NN1 turned_VVD out_RP on_II each_DD1 occasion_NN1 to_TO cast_VVI their_APPGE vote_NN1 and_CC ,_, of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS did_VDD so_RR ,_, more_RRR than_CSN 90%_NNU voted_VVD usually_RR for_IF either_RR the_AT Conservative_NN1 or_CC Labour_JJ candidate_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1950_MC election_NN1 ,_, turnout_NN1 reached_VVD 84%_NNU ._. 
In_II the_AT 1951_MC election_NN1 ,_, almost_RR 97%_NNU of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS voted_VVD cast_VVN their_APPGE ballots_NN2 for_IF one_MC1 or_CC other_JJ of_IO the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
The_AT third_MD generalization_NN1 is_VBZ drawn_VVN from_II survey_NN1 data_NN ._. 
Gallup_NP1 Poll_NN1 data_NN showed_VVD that_CST in_II these_DD2 four_MC elections_NN2 ,_, 79%_NNU or_CC more_DAR of_IO upper-middle-class_JJ voters_NN2 and_CC 69%_NNU or_CC more_DAR of_IO middle-class_JJ voters_NN2 cast_VV0 their_APPGE votes_NN2 for_IF the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ,_, while_CS more_DAR than_CSN 50%_NNU of_IO working-class_JJ and_CC very_RG poor_JJ voters_NN2 voted_VVN for_IF the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
Class_NN1 clearly_RR was_VBDZ not_XX an_AT1 exclusive_JJ predictor_NN1 nor_CC was_VBDZ the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II class_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 symmetrical_JJ :_: the_AT middle_JJ class_NN1 was_VBDZ more_RGR Conservative_JJ than_CSN the_AT working_JJ class_NN1 was_VBDZ Labour_JJ ._. 
One-third_MF of_IO working-class_JJ voters_NN2 regularly_RR voted_VVN Conservative_NN1 ._. 
Nonetheless_RR ,_, class_NN1 remained_VVD the_AT most_RGT important_JJ predictor_NN1 of_IO how_RRQ an_AT1 elector_NN1 might_VM vote_VVI ._. 
In_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 and_CC since_RR ,_, these_DD2 generalizations_NN2 have_VH0 lost_VVN some_DD of_IO their_APPGE force_NN1 ._. 
Between_II 1964_MC and_CC 1983_MC ,_, turnout_NN1 in_II general_JJ elections_NN2 failed_VVD to_TO reach_VVI 80%_NNU ,_, falling_VVG below_RG 73%_NNU in_II 1970_MC ,_, October_NPM1 1974_MC ,_, and_CC 1983_MC ._. 
More_RGR notably_RR ,_, there_EX was_VBDZ a_AT1 relative_JJ desertion_NN1 by_II voters_NN2 of_IO the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT two_MC elections_NN2 of_IO 1974_MC ,_, 75%_NNU of_IO those_DD2 who_PNQS voted_VVD cast_VVN their_APPGE ballots_NN2 for_IF one_MC1 or_CC other_JJ of_IO the_AT main_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
In_II 1983_MC the_AT figure_NN1 was_VBDZ 70%_NNU ._. 
The_AT class-party_JJ nexus_NN1 also_RR began_VVD to_TO wane_VVI ._. 
The_AT survey_NN1 by_II Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 detected_VVD a_AT1 weakening_JJ of_IO the_AT class_NN1 alignment_NN1 among_II younger_JJR voters_NN2 in_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 ._. 
Further_JJR analysis_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE data_NN and_CC of_IO additional_JJ data_NN for_IF the_AT period_NN1 from_II 1970_MC to_II 1975_MC showed_VVD that_CST ,_, though_CS the_AT vote_NN1 for_IF the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 had_VHD declined_VVN in_II the_AT 1960s_MC2 ,_, major_JJ party_NN1 identification_NN1 had_VHD not_XX :_: in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, electors_NN2 whatever_DDQV they_PPHS2 may_VM have_VHI done_VDN in_II the_AT polling_NN1 booths_NN2 continued_VVD to_TO express_VVI a_AT1 sense_NN1 of_IO affiliation_NN1 with_IW one_MC1 of_IO the_AT two_MC main_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, partisan_JJ identification_NN1 declined_VVD abruptly_RR in_II 1974_MC ,_, though_CS the_AT decline_NN1 was_VBDZ relative_JJ :_: many_DA2 &quot;_" very_RG strong_JJ &quot;_" identifiers_NN2 switched_VVN to_II being_VBG &quot;_" fairly_RR strong_JJ &quot;_" identifiers._NNU the_AT authors_NN2 speculated_VVD that_CST this_DD1 partisan_JJ dealignment_NN1 reflected_VVD a_AT1 continuing_JJ erosion_NN1 of_IO the_AT class-party_JJ tie_NN1 ._. 
By_II October_NPM1 1974_MC ,_, barely_RR half_DB of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 identified_VVN (_( let_VV0 alone_RR voted_VVN )_) with_IW their_APPGE &quot;_" natural_JJ &quot;_" class_NN1 party_NN1 ._. 
The_AT relative_JJ decline_NN1 in_II the_AT importance_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 is_VBZ borne_VVN out_RP by_II a_AT1 survey_NN1 of_IO voters_NN2 in_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 (_( Table_NN1 5.5_MC )_) ._. 
Support_VV0 for_IF the_AT SDP/Liberal_FU Alliance_NN1 was_VBDZ drawn_VVN evenly_RR from_II different_JJ social_JJ classes_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 failed_VVD to_TO achieve_VVI even_RR half_DB the_AT votes_NN2 of_IO working-class_JJ and_CC unemployed_JJ voters_NN2 ._. 
The_AT gap_NN1 between_II its_APPGE share_NN1 of_IO the_AT manual_NN1 and_CC nonmanual_JJ votes_NN2 was_VBDZ only_RR 21%_NNU ,_, compared_VVN with_IW 27%_NNU in_II 1979_MC and_CC 40%_NNU in_II 1959_MC ._. 
The_AT Conservatives_NN2 made_VVD no_AT significant_JJ inroads_NN2 among_II their_APPGE traditional_JJ class_NN1 supporters_NN2 ,_, though_CS attracting_VVG the_AT votes_NN2 of_IO almost_RR one_MC1 in_II three_MC of_IO trade_NN1 unionists_NN2 ._. 
(_( Most_RGT trade_NN1 unions_NN2 are_VBR affiliated_VVN to_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ._. )_) 
Although_CS social_JJ class_NN1 continues_VVZ to_II structure_NN1 party_NN1 choice_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ no_RR21 longer_RR22 as_CSA reliable_JJ a_AT1 predictor_NN1 as_CSA it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 and_CC 1960s_MC2 ._. 
What_DDQ other_JJ variables_NN2 ,_, independent_JJ of_IO class_NN1 ,_, can_VM be_VBI identified_VVN as_CSA being_VBG correlated_VVN to_II voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 ?_? 
Age_NN1 ,_, religion_NN1 ,_, gender_NN1 ,_, region_NN1 ,_, population_NN1 density_NN1 ,_, and_CC home_NN1 ownership_NN1 are_VBR among_II the_AT most_RGT significant_JJ to_TO have_VHI been_VBN identified_VVN ._. 
Some_DD of_IO these_DD2 have_VH0 become_VVN more_RRR pronounced_VVN as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT weakening_JJ of_IO the_AT class-party_JJ relationship_NN1 ;_; others_NN2 are_VBR of_IO declining_JJ significance_NN1 ._. 
Age_NN1 and_CC gender_NN1 are_VBR among_II those_DD2 variables_NN2 of_IO declining_JJ significance_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, the_AT older_JJR age_NN1 groups_NN2 were_VBDR marginally_RR more_RGR Conservative_JJ than_CSN the_AT younger_JJR ones_NN2 ,_, but_CCB the_AT difference_NN1 was_VBDZ small_JJ ._. 
Among_II those_DD2 aged_VVN over_RG 65_MC years_NNT2 ,_, 48%_NNU voted_VVD Conservative_NN1 (_( a_AT1 15%_NNU lead_NN1 over_II the_AT proportion_NN1 voting_VVG Labour_JJ )_) ,_, whereas_CS among_II those_DD2 aged_II 18_MC to_II 22_MC years_NNT2 ,_, 41%_NNU voted_VVD Conservative_NN1 (_( a_AT1 12%_NNU lead_NN1 over_II Labour_JJ voters_NN2 )_) ._. 
Conservative_JJ support_NN1 among_II the_AT over-65s_MC2 was_VBDZ lower_JJR than_CSN in_II 1979_MC ,_, indeed_RR dropping_VVG by_II more_DAR than_CSN the_AT national_JJ average_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 decline_NN1 could_VM support_VVI the_AT generational_JJ cohort_NN1 theory_NN1 developed_VVN by_II Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 :_: that_REX21 is_REX22 ,_, that_CST it_PPH1 is_VBZ not_XX age_NN1 as_CSA such_CS21 that_CS22 influences_NN2 voting_VVG behaviour_NN1 but_CCB the_AT period_NN1 at_II which_DDQ one_PN1 becomes_VVZ politically_RR aware_JJ ._. 
Thus_RR ,_, the_AT over-65s_MC2 in_II 1983_MC were_VBDR the_AT generation_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1930s_MC2 and_CC of_IO the_AT Second_MD World_NN1 War_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 3_MC )_) ._. 
As_CSA one_MC1 analyst_NN1 puts_VVZ it_PPH1 ,_, &quot;_" Some_DD of_IO the_AT Labour_JJ loyalty_NN1 induced_VVN in_II their_APPGE formative_JJ years_NNT2 will_VM have_VHI lasted_VVN until_II today_RT ._. 
&quot;_" As_II a_AT1 predictor_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 ,_, though_CS ,_, age_NN1 is_VBZ of_IO marginal_JJ utility_NN1 ,_, and_CC so_RG too_RR is_VBZ gender_NN1 ._. 
Traditionally_RR ,_, women_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN somewhat_RR more_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN men_NN2 to_TO vote_VVI Conservative_NN1 ._. 
In_II most_DAT postwar_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, more_DAR men_NN2 have_VH0 voted_VVN Labour_JJ than_CSN have_VH0 voted_VVN Conservative_NN1 ,_, whereas_CS more_DAR women_NN2 have_VH0 voted_VVN Conservative_JJ than_CSN have_VH0 voted_VVN Labour_JJ ._. 
However_RR ,_, the_AT bias_NN1 was_VBDZ a_AT1 slight_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
According_II21 to_II22 the_AT Gallup_NP1 Poll_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 disappeared_VVD in_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 drawing_VVG more_DAR support_NN1 from_II men_NN2 than_CSN from_II women_NN2 (_( 46%_NNU to_II 43%_NNU )_) ,_, thus_RR replicating_VVG similar_JJ developments_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 and_CC Scandinavia_NP1 during_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ._. 
However_RR ,_, according_II21 to_II22 a_AT1 Market_NN1 and_CC Opinion_NN1 Research_NN1 International_JJ (_( MORI_NP1 )_) poll_NN1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 continued_VVD to_TO draw_VVI more_DAR support_NN1 from_II female_JJ than_CSN from_II male_JJ voters_NN2 (_( Table_NN1 5.6_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT disparity_NN1 in_II the_AT data_NN highlights_VVZ the_AT marginal_JJ significance_NN1 now_RT of_IO gender_NN1 as_II a_AT1 predictor_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 ._. 
Religion_NN1 is_VBZ another_DD1 variable_NN1 of_IO limited_JJ importance_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 was_VBDZ significant_JJ in_II the_AT nineteenth_MD century_NNT1 but_CCB declined_VVD rapidly_RR in_II the_AT twentieth_MD ,_, as_CSA class_NN1 became_VVD more_RGR important_JJ ._. 
Butler_NP1 and_CC Stokes_NP1 found_VVD the_AT relationship_NN1 between_II religion_NN1 and_CC party_NN1 of_IO declining_JJ relevance_NN1 with_IW each_DD1 generation_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, in_II some_DD areas_NN2 where_RRQ religious_JJ loyalties_NN2 remain_VV0 strong_JJ ,_, such_DA loyalties_NN2 can_VM still_RR alter_VVI the_AT pattern_NN1 of_IO class_NN1 voting_NN1 ._. 
An_AT1 obvious_JJ example_NN1 is_VBZ Northern_NP1 Ireland_NP1 (_( see_VV0 Chapter_NN1 9_MC )_) ,_, though_CS mainland_NN1 examples_NN2 can_VM be_VBI found_VVN in_II certain_JJ cities_NN2 ,_, notably_RR Glasgow_NP1 ._. 
In_II such_DA cities_NN2 there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 sizable_JJ Irish_JJ Catholic_JJ vote_NN1 ,_, and_CC this_DD1 swells_VVZ the_AT Labour_JJ vote_NN1 in_II elections_NN2 ._. 
Elsewhere_RL ,_, the_AT impact_NN1 of_IO religion_NN1 is_VBZ small_JJ ,_, though_CS those_DD2 who_PNQS are_VBR not_XX members_NN2 of_IO the_AT Church_NN1 of_IO england_NN1 are_VBR less_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN others_NN2 in_II their_APPGE class_NN1 to_TO support_VVI the_AT Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
The_AT marginality_NN1 of_IO religion_NN1 in_II influencing_VVG voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 is_VBZ reflected_VVN in_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 did_VDD not_XX figure_VVI in_II analyses_NN2 published_VVN in_II the_AT wake_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 ._. 
More_RGR significant_JJ predictors_NN2 ,_, especially_RR in_II recent_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 been_VBN location_NN1 and_CC home_NN1 ownership_NN1 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, Labour_JJ and_CC Conservative_JJ support_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN polarized_VVN between_II North_ND1 and_CC South_ND1 and_CC between_II urban_JJ and_CC rural_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ also_RR becoming_VVG polarized_VVN between_II those_DD2 who_PNQS own_VV0 and_CC those_DD2 who_PNQS rent_VV0 their_APPGE houses_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 ,_, in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 its_APPGE voting_NN1 support_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ always_RR been_VBN the_AT party_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 and_CC ,_, indeed_RR ,_, of_IO a_AT1 particular_JJ part_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 ._. 
That_DD1 concentration_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN marked_VVN in_II recent_JJ elections_NN2 ._. 
In_II a_AT1 good_JJ postwar_JJ election_NN1 year_NNT1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 would_VM normally_RR expect_VVI to_TO pick_VVI up_RP a_AT1 respectable_JJ number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 in_II Northern_JJ England_NP1 and_CC to_II some_DD extent_NN1 in_II Scotland_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ no_RR21 longer_RR22 the_AT case_NN1 ._. 
The_AT party_NN1 's_GE regional_JJ strength_NN1 has_VHZ become_VVN more_RRR pronounced_VVN ._. 
Mrs._NNB Thatcher_NP1 carried_VVD her_APPGE party_NN1 to_II victory_NN1 in_II 1979_MC largely_RR on_II the_AT votes_NN2 of_IO the_AT electorate_NN1 in_II the_AT southern_JJ half_NN1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, below_II a_AT1 line_NN1 drawn_VVN from_II the_AT River_NNL1 Severn_NP1 to_II the_AT Wash_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Map_NN1 5.1_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT swing_NN1 to_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 in_II the_AT election_NN1 was_VBDZ highest_JJT in_II the_AT southern_JJ half_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 (_( and_CC in_II Wales_NP1 )_) ,_, lowest_RRT in_II the_AT northern_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 and_CC in_II Scotland_NP1 ._. 
Compared_VVN with_IW the_AT 1955_MC election_NN1 ,_, the_AT party_NN1 had_VHD 20_MC fewer_DAR seats_NN2 in_II the_AT North_ND1 and_CC 14_MC fewer_DAR in_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, conversely_RR ,_, it_PPH1 had_VHD 34_MC more_DAR in_II the_AT South_ND1 and_CC the_AT Midlands_NP1 and_CC 5_MC more_DAR in_II Wales_NP1 ._. 
This_DD1 concentration_NN1 became_VVD even_RR more_RRR pronounced_VVN in_II 1983_MC ._. 
In_II the_AT southern_JJ half_NN1 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 won_VVD only_RR three_MC seats_NN2 outside_II21 of_II22 Greater_NP1 London_NP1 and_CC was_VBDZ largely_RR displaced_VVN as_II the_AT main_JJ challenger_NN1 to_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 by_II the_AT Liberal/SDP_FU Alliance_NN1 (_( see_VV0 Table_NN1 5.7_MC )_) ._. 
The_AT Labour_JJ vote_NN1 declined_VVD least_RRT in_II Scotland_NP1 ,_, while_CS the_AT Conservative_JJ vote_NN1 declined_VVD most_RRT in_II the_AT Northwest_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ._. 
The_AT wide_JJ margin_NN1 between_II support_NN1 for_IF the_AT Conservatives_NN2 in_II the_AT South_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 and_CC Labour_JJ in_II the_AT North_ND1 and_CC Scotland_NP1 is_VBZ shown_VVN in_II Table_NN1 5.7_MC and_CC in_II Map_NN1 5.1_MC ._. 
Scotland_NP1 the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 is_VBZ more_RGR working-class_JJ than_CSN the_AT South_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, but_CCB this_DD1 is_VBZ not_XX sufficient_JJ to_TO explain_VVI the_AT disparity_NN1 ._. 
A_ZZ1 MORI_NP1 poll_NN1 conducted_VVN in_II 1981_MC found_VVD that_CST among_II skilled_JJ workers_NN2 in_II the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, Labour_NN1 had_VHD a_AT1 32%_NNU lead_VVN over_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
Among_II the_AT same_DA group_NN1 in_II the_AT South_ND1 ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ lead_NN1 was_VBDZ only_RR 6%_NNU ._. 
Not_XX only_RR is_VBZ the_AT North-South_NN1 divide_NN1 becoming_VVG more_RRR pronounced_VVN in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 Labour-Conservative_JJ polarization_NN1 ,_, so_RG too_RR is_VBZ the_AT divide_NN1 between_II urban_JJ and_CC rural_JJ areas_NN2 ._. 
Conservative_JJ support_NN1 in_II the_AT larger_JJR cities_NN2 has_VHZ been_VBN declining_VVG for_IF more_DAR than_CSN 25_MC years_NNT2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 ,_, the_AT party_NN1 won_VVD less_DAR than_CSN half_DB the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 it_PPH1 had_VHD won_VVN in_II the_AT larger_JJR cities_NN2 in_II 1959_MC ,_, the_AT last_MD election_NN1 when_CS it_PPH1 was_VBDZ returned_VVN with_IW a_AT1 three-figure_JJ majority_NN1 ._. 
In_II some_DD cities_NN2 ,_, the_AT decline_NN1 in_II support_NN1 has_VHZ been_VBN dramatic_JJ ._. 
In_II 1959_MC in_II the_AT three_MC cities_NN2 of_IO Glasgow_NP1 ,_, Liverpool_NP1 and_CC Manchester_NP1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 won_VVD a_AT1 total_NN1 of_IO 15_MC seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT same_DA three_MC cities_NN2 in_II 1983_MC ,_, they_PPHS2 won_VVD 1_MC1 ._. 
There_EX are_VBR now_RT no_AT Conservative-held_JJ seats_NN2 in_II Glasgow_NP1 or_CC Liverpool_NP1 ._. 
Conversely_RR ,_, the_AT rural_JJ areas_NN2 have_VH0 moved_VVN further_RRR away_II21 from_II22 Labour_JJ ._. 
In_II 1983_MC ,_, the_AT swing_NN1 away_II21 from_II22 Labour_JJ in_II rural_JJ and_CC mixed_VVD areas_NN2 was_VBDZ twice_RR what_DDQ it_PPH1 was_VBDZ in_II urban_JJ areas_NN2 :_: not_XX one_MC1 rural_JJ constituency_NN1 in_II the_AT South_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 was_VBDZ won_VVN by_II Labour_JJ ._. 
These_DD2 changes_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN attributed_VVN to_II changing_VVG economic_JJ patterns_NN2 ._. 
&quot;_" The_AT peripheral_JJ areas_NN2 of_IO Britain_NP1 ,_, &quot;_" write_VV0 two_MC analysts_NN2 ,_, &quot;_" with_IW their_APPGE higher_JJR unemployment_NN1 ,_, and_CC the_AT declining_JJ inner_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO conurbations_NN2 ,_, have_VH0 become_VVN steadily_RR more_RGR Labour_JJ ;_; while_CS the_AT expanding_JJ ,_, more_RGR prosperous_JJ areas_NN2 have_VH0 become_VVN more_RGR Conservative_JJ ._. 
&quot;_" Prosperity_NN1 would_VM also_RR appear_VVI relevant_JJ to_II the_AT increasing_JJ importance_NN1 of_IO home_NN1 ownership_NN1 ._. 
In_II 1983_MC ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ vote_NN1 held_VVD up_RP well_RR among_II those_DD2 who_PNQS rented_VVD their_APPGE homes_NN2 from_II the_AT local_JJ authorities_NN2 (_( Table_NN1 5.7_MC )_) ._. 
Among_II those_DD2 who_PNQS owned_VVD their_APPGE own_DA homes_NN2 the_AT party_NN1 trailed_VVD third_MD behind_II the_AT Conservatives_NN2 and_CC the_AT Liberal/SDP_FU Alliance_NN1 ._. 
Working-class_JJ home-owners_NN2 were_VBDR more_RGR likely_JJ to_TO vote_VVI Conservative_JJ than_CSN working-class_JJ council-house_JJ tenants_NN2 ._. 
The_AT problem_NN1 for_IF the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST the_AT latter_DA category_NN1 is_VBZ declining_VVG in_II size_NN1 :_: more_DAR workers_NN2 are_VBR buying_VVG their_APPGE own_DA homes_NN2 ._. 
Increasingly_RR ,_, then_RT ,_, the_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 is_VBZ becoming_VVG a_AT1 party_NN1 that_CST draws_VVZ its_APPGE support_NN1 predominantly_RR from_II the_AT South_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, from_II the_AT rural_JJ and_CC suburban_JJ constituencies_NN2 ,_, and_CC from_II home-owners_NN2 ._. 
Labour_NN1 ,_, in_II contrast_NN1 ,_, is_VBZ becoming_VVG a_AT1 party_NN1 confined_VVN to_II the_AT North_ND1 of_IO England_NP1 ,_, Scotland_NP1 ,_, and_CC the_AT urban_JJ areas_NN2 ,_, especially_RR the_AT inner_JJ cities_NN2 ._. 
As_II21 for_II22 the_AT Liberal/SDP_FU Alliance_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 appears_VVZ to_TO draw_VVI its_APPGE support_NN1 fairly_RR evenly_RR from_II the_AT different_JJ classes_NN2 (_( Table_NN1 5.5_MC )_) ,_, from_II different_JJ parts_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 (_( though_CS marginally_RR more_RRR from_II the_AT South_ND1 than_CSN from_II the_AT North_ND1 and_CC Scotland_NP1 )_) ,_, and_CC from_II owner-occupiers_NN2 as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 council-house_JJ tenants_NN2 (_( Table_NN1 5.7_MC )_) ._. 
Anyone_PN1 seeking_VVG to_TO find_VVI a_AT1 reliable_JJ predictor_NN1 of_IO Alliance_NN1 voting_NN1 would_VM be_VBI hard_RR pressed_VVN to_TO find_VVI one_PN1 ._. 
Are_VBR there_EX any_DD other_JJ correlations_NN2 to_TO be_VBI drawn_VVN ?_? 
Education_NN1 remains_VVZ important_JJ ,_, independent_JJ of_IO class_NN1 ._. 
Voters_NN2 with_IW above_II the_AT minimum_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 are_VBR more_RGR likely_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 who_PNQS have_VH0 only_RR a_AT1 minimum_NN1 of_IO education_NN1 to_TO vote_VVI Conservative_NN1 ._. 
Where_CS the_AT British_JJ equivalents_NN2 of_IO Continental_JJ peasants_NN2 (_( crofters_NN2 ,_, lumbermen_NN2 ,_, isolated_JJ agriculturalists_NN2 )_) are_VBR gathered_VVN ,_, there_EX is_VBZ a_AT1 tendency_NN1 for_IF voters_NN2 to_TO deviate_VVI from_II overall_JJ patterns_NN2 of_IO class_NN1 voting_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 tendency_NN1 in_II Scotland_NP1 and_CC Wales_NP1 favoring_VVG the_AT Liberals_NN2 (_( and_CC ,_, in_II 1983_MC ,_, the_AT SDP_NP1 )_) as_II31 well_II32 as_II33 the_AT Nationalist_NN1 parties_NN2 ._. 
The_AT presence_NN1 of_IO nonwhite_NN1 voters_NN2 in_II certain_JJ urban_JJ constituencies_NN2 may_VM cause_VVI further_JJR deviations_NN2 from_II the_AT class_NN1 pattern_NN1 ,_, but_CCB the_AT evidence_NN1 on_II this_DD1 is_VBZ mixed_VVN ._. 
Issue_VV0 voting_NN1 ,_, which_DDQ one_PN1 might_VM expect_VVI to_TO have_VHI increased_VVN in_II significance_NN1 given_VVN the_AT decline_NN1 in_II class_NN1 voting_NN1 ,_, appears_VVZ to_TO remain_VVI extremely_RR limited_VVN ._. 
The_AT images_NN2 that_CST the_AT parties_NN2 convey_VV0 are_VBR important_JJ ,_, more_RGR so_RR than_CSN their_APPGE stance_NN1 on_II specific_JJ issues_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 ,_, more_DAR electors_NN2 thought_VVD the_AT Conservatives_NN2 had_VHD the_AT better_JJR policies_NN2 than_CSN actually_RR voted_VVN for_IF the_AT party_NN1 ._. 
The_AT most_RGT important_JJ issue_NN1 was_VBDZ considered_VVN by_II electors_NN2 to_TO be_VBI that_DD1 of_IO unemployment_NN1 ,_, an_AT1 issue_NN1 on_II which_DDQ more_RRR preferred_VVD the_AT Labour_JJ position_NN1 to_II that_DD1 of_IO the_AT Conservatives_NN2 ._. 
Against_II this_DD1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 were_VBDR preferred_VVN by_RR21 far_RR22 greater_JJR margins_NN2 on_II the_AT issues_NN2 of_IO defense_NN1 and_CC prices_NN2 ._. 
Negative_JJ voting_NN1 was_VBDZ also_RR a_AT1 significant_JJ feature_NN1 of_IO the_AT election_NN1 ,_, 59%_NNU of_IO all_DB voters_NN2 disliking_VVG the_AT other_JJ party_NN1 (_( or_CC parties_NN2 )_) more_DAR than_CSN they_PPHS2 liked_VVD their_APPGE own_DA ._. 
There_EX is_VBZ little_DA1 evidence_NN1 to_TO suggest_VVI voters_NN2 voting_VVG for_IF a_AT1 particular_JJ party_NN1 because_II21 of_II22 its_APPGE stand_NN1 on_II a_AT1 particular_JJ issue_NN1 ._. 
Electoral_JJ changes_NN2 and_CC their_APPGE relationship_NN1 to_II the_AT political_JJ parties_NN2 have_VH0 been_VBN the_AT subject_NN1 of_IO much_DA1 recent_JJ analysis_NN1 and_CC debate_NN1 ._. 
A_AT1 review_NN1 of_IO this_DD1 debate_NN1 is_VBZ more_RGR appropriate_JJ following_II a_AT1 consideration_NN1 of_IO the_AT political_JJ parties_NN2 in_II Britain_NP1 and_CC hence_RR is_VBZ covered_VVN in_II the_AT following_JJ chapter_NN1 ._. 
Here_RL I_PPIS1 propose_VV0 to_TO confine_VVI my_APPGE discussion_NN1 to_II the_AT contemporary_JJ debate_NN1 surrounding_VVG the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 as_II an_AT1 electoral_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
By_II the_AT middle_NN1 of_IO the_AT twentieth_MD century_NNT1 ,_, Britain_NP1 had_VHD developed_VVN an_AT1 electoral_JJ system_NN1 the_AT basic_JJ characteristics_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ have_VH0 been_VBN delineated_VVN above_RL :_: single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 ,_, first-past-the-post_JJ election_NN1 to_TO determine_VVI the_AT winner_NN1 in_II each_DD1 ,_, and_CC each_DD1 adult_NN1 citizen_NN1 having_VHG the_AT right_NN1 to_TO cast_VVI a_AT1 vote_NN1 ._. 
That_DD1 system_NN1 was_VBDZ both_RR perceived_VVN and_CC expected_VVN to_TO perform_VVI three_MC related_JJ functions_NN2 :_: through_II election_NN1 to_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 government_NN1 ;_; through_II a_AT1 purportedly_RR democratic_JJ franchise_NN1 and_CC mode_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO confer_VVI legitimacy_NN1 upon_II the_AT government_NN1 to_TO govern_VVI ,_, subject_II21 to_II22 the_AT approval_NN1 of_IO Parliament_NN1 ;_; and_CC ,_, through_II facilitating_VVG a_AT1 choice_NN1 between_II parties_NN2 propounding_VVG specific_JJ programs_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ expected_VVN to_TO influence_VVI public_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, the_AT party_NN1 in_II government_NN1 carrying_VVG through_II the_AT promises_NN2 embodies_VVZ in_II its_APPGE election_NN1 manifesto_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT 1950s_MC2 such_DA expectations_NN2 were_VBDR assumed_VVN to_TO have_VHI been_VBN met_VVN ._. 
Governments_NN2 were_VBDR returned_VVN with_IW overall_JJ majorities_NN2 ._. 
There_EX were_VBDR few_DA2 complaints_NN2 about_II the_AT mode_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 ._. 
Governments_NN2 appeared_VVD to_TO carry_VVI out_RP their_APPGE promises_NN2 ._. 
The_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 appeared_VVD to_TO form_VVI an_AT1 intrinsic_JJ part_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 stable_JJ polity_NN1 ._. 
THE_AT CURRENT_JJ DEBATE_NN1 In_II the_AT 1970s_MC2 ,_, and_CC especially_RR in_II the_AT wake_NN1 of_IO the_AT two_MC general_JJ elections_NN2 of_IO 1974_MC ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 was_VBDZ capable_JJ of_IO fulfilling_VVG such_DA functions_NN2 became_VVD a_AT1 matter_NN1 of_IO controversy_NN1 ._. 
In_II the_AT February_NPM1 1974_MC election_NN1 ,_, no_AT party_NN1 was_VBDZ returned_VVN to_II office_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT election_NN1 of_IO October_NPM1 of_IO the_AT same_DA year_NNT1 ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 achieved_VVN an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO only_RR three_MC seats_NN2 :_: as_II a_AT1 consequence_NN1 of_IO by-election_NN1 losses_NN2 and_CC defections_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 lost_VVD its_APPGE majority_NN1 in_II April_NPM1 1976_MC ,_, and_CC by_II the_AT end_NN1 of_IO the_AT Parliament_NN1 was_VBDZ in_II a_AT1 minority_NN1 by_II 17_MC seats_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_JJ party_NN1 achieved_VVN a_AT1 swing_NN1 of_IO 5.2%_FO in_II its_APPGE favor_NN1 in_II the_AT May_NPM1 1979_MC election_NN1 ,_, being_VBG returned_VVN with_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO 43_MC seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II previous_JJ decades_NNT2 a_AT1 similar_JJ swing_NN1 would_VM have_VHI produced_VVN a_AT1 much_RR higher_JJR majority_NN1 ._. 
Shifts_NN2 in_II the_AT distribution_NN1 of_IO party_NN1 support_NN1 within_II the_AT country_NN1 were_VBDR ,_, according_II21 to_II22 one_MC1 important_JJ study_NN1 ,_, likely_JJ to_TO increase_VVI the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" hung_JJ &quot;_" Parliaments_NN2 ,_, no_AT one_MC1 party_NN1 being_VBG returned_VVN with_IW an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 ._. 
The_AT ability_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 to_TO produce_VVI a_AT1 government_NN1 in_II the_AT way_NN1 previously_RR expected_VVN of_IO it_PPH1 was_VBDZ thus_RR called_VVN into_II question_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT system_NN1 also_RR came_VVD under_II attack_NN1 as_CSA being_VBG unfair_JJ hence_RR undermining_VVG consent_NN1 by_II calling_VVG into_II doubt_NN1 the_AT legitimacy_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT mode_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 and_CC the_AT government_NN1 produced_VVN by_II it_PPH1 and_CC for_IF facilitating_VVG the_AT adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT parties_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 relationship_NN1 that_CST significantly_RR influenced_VVN public_JJ policy_NN1 ,_, but_CCB did_VDD so_RR in_II a_AT1 manner_NN1 harmful_JJ to_II the_AT interests_NN2 of_IO the_AT country._NNU the_AT effects_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 on_II public_JJ policy_NN1 in_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 both_RR continuity_NN1 and_CC substance_NN1 was_VBDZ considered_VVN to_TO threaten_VVI rather_CS21 than_CS22 enhance_VVI the_AT effectiveness_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 The_AT accusation_NN1 that_CST the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 is_VBZ an_AT1 unfair_JJ one_PN1 is_VBZ not_XX new_JJ ._. 
It_PPH1 has_VHZ been_VBN advanced_VVN for_IF some_DD time_NNT1 by_II both_DB2 the_AT Liberal_JJ party_NN1 and_CC the_AT Electoral_JJ Reform_NN1 Society_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 gained_VVD ground_NN1 as_II a_AT1 result_NN1 of_IO the_AT election_NN1 results_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1970s_MC2 and_CC the_AT development_NN1 of_IO the_AT adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 thesis_NN1 ._. 
The_AT first-past-the-post_JJ plurality_NN1 method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 in_II single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ argued_VVN ,_, did_VDD not_XX allow_VVI realization_NN1 of_IO the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" one_MC1 person_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 vote_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 value_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Each_DD1 adult_NN1 citizen_NN1 may_VM have_VHI one_MC1 vote_NN1 but_CCB each_DD1 vote_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX of_IO equal_JJ value_NN1 ._. 
The_AT disparity_NN1 in_II the_AT size_NN1 of_IO constituency_NN1 electorates_NN2 meant_VVD that_CST a_AT1 vote_NN1 cast_VVN in_II a_AT1 constituency_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 small_JJ electorate_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 Glasgow_NP1 Central_JJ was_VBDZ worth_II more_DAR than_CSN one_MC1 cast_VV0 in_RP ,_, say_VV0 ,_, Bromsgrove_NP1 and_CC Redditch_NP1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, the_AT extensive_JJ number_NN1 of_IO safe_JJ seats_NN2 meant_VVD that_CST many_DA2 electors_NN2 cast_VV0 &quot;_" wasted_JJ &quot;_" votes_NN2 ._. 
What_DDQ was_VBDZ the_AT point_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 Conservative_NN1 in_II a_AT1 constituency_NN1 such_II21 as_II22 Blaenau_NP1 Gwent_NP1 ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, where_CS the_AT Labour_JJ candidate_NN1 had_VHD a_AT1 majority_NN1 in_II31 excess_II32 of_II33 20,000_MC at_II the_AT previous_JJ election_NN1 ?_? 
An_AT1 elector_NN1 consistently_RR voting_VVG Conservative_NN1 in_II the_AT constituency_NN1 would_VM never_RR contribute_VVI towards_II the_AT election_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 MP_NN1 ._. 
The_AT two_MC most_RGT central_JJ criticisms_NN2 ,_, though_CS ,_, have_VH0 been_VBN directed_VVN at_II the_AT aggregate_JJ effects_NN2 of_IO such_DA a_AT1 method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT difference_NN1 in_II the_AT spread_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 between_II the_AT parties_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ possible_JJ for_IF one_MC1 party_NN1 to_TO get_VVI more_DAR votes_NN2 than_CSN its_APPGE opponent_NN1 party_NN1 but_CCB receive_VV0 fewer_DAR seats_NN2 ._. 
For_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, party_NN1 A_ZZ1 could_VM win_VVI two_MC marginal_JJ seats_NN2 by_II the_AT barest_JJT of_IO margins_NN2 while_CS party_NN1 B_ZZ1 won_VVD one_MC1 seat_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 overwhelming_JJ majority_NN1 ;_; the_AT aggregate_JJ vote_NN1 for_IF party_NN1 B_ZZ1 in_II the_AT three_MC seats_NN2 could_VM well_RR exceed_VVI that_DD1 of_IO party_NN1 A_ZZ1 ,_, but_CCB party_NN1 A_ZZ1 has_VHZ won_VVN twice_RR as_RG many_DA2 seats_NN2 ._. 
(_( A_ZZ1 similar_JJ spread_NN1 of_IO support_NN1 among_II states_NN2 in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 presidential_JJ elections_NN2 may_VM result_VVI in_II a_AT1 president_NN1 obtaining_VVG a_AT1 majority_NN1 in_II the_AT electoral_JJ college_NN1 without_IW obtaining_VVG a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT popular_JJ vote_NN1 ._. )_) 
On_II two_MC occasions_NN2 in_II postwar_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, such_DA a_AT1 situation_NN1 actually_RR occurred_VVD ._. 
In_II the_AT 1951_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 won_VVD a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 but_CCB the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 won_VVD more_DAR votes_NN2 (_( see_VV0 Table_NN1 5.2_MC )_) ._. 
In_II the_AT February_NPM1 1974_MC election_NN1 ,_, the_AT position_NN1 was_VBDZ reversed_VVN ,_, the_AT Conservatives_NN2 winning_VVG more_DAR votes_NN2 nationally_RR than_CSN Labour_JJ but_CCB Labour_JJ winning_VVG more_DAR seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 forming_VVG a_AT1 government_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 that_CST count_VV0 :_: the_AT Conservatives_NN2 formed_VVD the_AT government_NN1 in_II 1951_MC ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 in_II 1974_MC ._. 
The_AT other_JJ major_JJ and_CC related_JJ criticism_NN1 ,_, the_AT one_PN1 emphasized_VVD most_RGT often_RR ,_, is_VBZ that_DD1 the_AT plurality_NN1 system_NN1 of_IO voting_NN1 works_VVZ against_II national_JJ third_MD parties_NN2 ._. 
Those_DD2 who_PNQS benefit_VV0 most_RRT from_II such_DA a_AT1 system_NN1 are_VBR the_AT two_MC largest_JJT parties_NN2 and_CC those_DD2 with_IW regionally_RR concentrated_JJ support_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ as_RG true_JJ in_II the_AT United_NP1 States_NP1 as_CSA it_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II Britain_NP1 ._. 
In_II presidential_JJ elections_NN2 ,_, a_AT1 third-party_JJ candidate_NN1 with_IW concentrated_JJ support_NN1 ,_, such_II21 as_II22 George_NP1 Wallace_NP1 in_II 1968_MC ,_, can_VM carry_VVI some_DD states_NN2 and_CC hence_RR win_VV0 some_DD electoral_JJ college_NN1 votes_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 candidate_NN1 with_IW support_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ broad_JJ but_CCB not_XX deep_RR ,_, such_II21 as_II22 John_NP1 Anderson_NP1 in_II 1980_MC ,_, can_VM amass_VVI several_DA2 million_NNO votes_NN2 but_CCB carry_VV0 no_AT state_NN1 at_RR21 all_RR22 ._. 
The_AT system_NN1 favors_VVZ the_AT Republican_NN1 and_CC Democratic_JJ parties_NN2 ._. 
Similarly_RR in_II Britain_NP1 ,_, a_AT1 party_NN1 can_VM win_VVI several_DA2 thousand_NNO votes_NN2 in_II each_DD1 constituency_NN1 yet_RR not_XX come_VVN out_RP top_NN1 of_IO the_AT poll_NN1 in_II any_DD ;_; in_II consequence_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 amasses_VVZ a_AT1 large_JJ popular_JJ vote_NN1 but_CCB no_AT seats_NN2 in_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 is_VBZ almost_RR the_AT position_NN1 in_II which_DDQ the_AT Liberal_JJ party_NN1 has_VHZ found_VVN itself_PPX1 in_II recent_JJ elections_NN2 (_( see_VV0 Table_NN1 5.2_MC )_) ._. 
In_II 1979_MC ,_, for_REX21 example_REX22 ,_, it_PPH1 won_VVD in_II31 excess_II32 of_II33 4_MC million_NNO votes_NN2 yet_RR topped_VVD the_AT poll_NN1 in_II only_RR 11_MC seats_NN2 ,_, less_DAR than_CSN 2%_NNU of_IO the_AT total_NN1 ._. 
This_DD1 phenomenon_NN1 is_VBZ even_RR more_RRR marked_VVN in_II the_AT case_NN1 of_IO the_AT SDP/Liberal_FU Alliance_NN1 :_: in_II 1983_MC it_PPH1 achieved_VVD more_DAR than_CSN a_AT1 quarter_NN1 of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VVN in_II the_AT general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, yet_RR won_VVN only_RR 3.5%_FO of_IO the_AT seats_NN2 in_II Parliament_NN1 ._. 
The_AT largest_JJT party_NN1 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, can_VM top_VVI the_AT poll_NN1 in_II most_DAT constituencies_NN2 with_IW ,_, say_VV0 ,_, 40%_NNU of_IO the_AT poll_NN1 ,_, the_AT remaining_JJ votes_NN2 split_VVN among_II the_AT other_JJ party_NN1 candidates_NN2 (_( see_VV0 the_AT example_NN1 of_IO Leicester_NP1 South_ND1 in_II Table_NN1 5.3_MC )_) ,_, thus_RR achieving_VVG a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 without_IW receiving_VVG an_AT1 absolute_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ._. 
Indeed_RR ,_, at_II no_AT election_NN1 since_II 1935_MC has_VHZ a_AT1 party_NN1 obtained_VVN more_RRR than_CSN 50%_NNU of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ,_, yet_RR at_II only_RR one_MC1 election_NN1 since_CS that_DD1 time_NNT1 has_VHZ a_AT1 government_NN1 been_VBN returned_VVN without_IW a_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 ._. 
In_II the_AT election_NN1 of_IO October_NPM1 1974_MC ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 obtained_VVD a_AT1 bare_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 for_IF fewer_DAR than_CSN 40%_NNU of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 cast_VV0 ._. 
Not_XX surprisingly_RR ,_, the_AT Liberal_JJ and_CC Social_JJ Democratic_JJ parties_NN2 are_VBR in_II the_AT vanguard_NN1 in_II arguing_VVG for_IF a_AT1 reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 to_TO eliminate_VVI such_DA anomalies_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ parties_NN2 ,_, by_II contrast_NN1 ,_, retain_VV0 a_AT1 preference_NN1 for_IF the_AT existing_JJ system_NN1 The_AT other_JJ more_RGR recent_JJ criticisms_NN2 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ derived_VVN from_II the_AT characterization_NN1 of_IO the_AT existing_JJ political_JJ system_NN1 as_II an_AT1 adversary_NN1 one_MC1 ._. 
The_AT &quot;_" adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 &quot;_" thesis_NN1 was_VBDZ developed_VVN following_II the_AT 1974_MC elections_NN2 by_II a_AT1 number_NN1 of_IO academics_NN2 ,_, led_VVN by_II S._NP1 E._NP1 Finer_JJR ._. 
The_AT essence_NN1 of_IO their_APPGE argument_NN1 was_VBDZ that_CST the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 encouraged_VVD a_AT1 polarized_JJ contest_NN1 between_II two_MC parties_NN2 for_IF the_AT winner-take-all_DB spoils_NN2 of_IO a_AT1 general_JJ election_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 party_NN1 would_VM be_VBI returned_VVN to_II office_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 and_CC implement_VV0 its_APPGE manifesto_NN1 program_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 program_NN1 neither_RR known_VVN nor_CC supported_VVN by_II most_DAT electors_NN2 and_CC one_PN1 drawn_VVN up_RP on_II the_AT basis_NN1 more_DAR of_IO party_NN1 dogma_NN1 than_CSN of_IO a_AT1 dispassionate_NN1 and_CC well-informed_JJ analysis_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT other_JJ party_NN1 would_VM then_RT win_VVI at_II a_AT1 subsequent_JJ election_NN1 ,_, enter_VV0 office_NN1 and_CC largely_RR undo_VV0 the_AT work_NN1 of_IO its_APPGE predecessor_NN1 ,_, implementing_VVG instead_RR its_APPGE own_DA program_NN1 ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 the_AT two_MC parties_NN2 were_VBDR perceived_VVN as_CSA representing_VVG different_JJ poles_NN2 of_IO the_AT political_JJ spectrum_NN1 ,_, government_NN1 policy_NN1 would_VM lurch_VVI from_II being_VBG right_JJ of_IO the_AT political_JJ center_NN1 under_RG one_MC1 adminstration_NN1 to_II being_VBG left_VVN of_IO center_NN1 under_II another_DD1 ._. 
The_AT results_NN2 ,_, in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, were_VBDR unrepresentative_JJ governments_NN2 pursuing_VVG policies_NN2 more_RGR politically_RR extreme_JJ than_CSN those_DD2 favored_VVN by_II the_AT more_RGR centrist_JJ electorate_NN1 and_CC policy_NN1 discontinuity_NN1 ._. 
Policy_NN1 discontinuity_NN1 frustrated_JJ industrialists_NN2 and_CC investors_NN2 who_PNQS wished_VVD to_TO engage_VVI in_RP forward_RL planning_VVG :_: they_PPHS2 could_VM not_XX anticipate_VVI stability_NN1 in_II government_NN1 programs_NN2 ._. 
Adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 and_CC changes_NN2 in_II government_NN1 may_VM make_VVI for_IF &quot;_" exciting_JJ politics_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" but_CCB they_PPHS2 produce_VV0 &quot;_" low-credibility_JJ Government_NN1 strategies_NN2 ,_, whichever_DDQV party_NN1 is_VBZ in_II power_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" Indeed_RR ,_, the_AT conditions_NN2 created_VVN by_II the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 were_VBDR seen_VVN as_CSA being_VBG the_AT heart_NN1 of_IO Britain_NP1 's_GE current_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
In_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO win_VVI an_AT1 election_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 party_NN1 would_VM make_VVI extravagant_JJ promises_NN2 ,_, doing_VDG so_RR in_BCL21 order_BCL22 to_TO outbid_VVI the_AT other_JJ party_NN1 ._. 
In_II office_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 would_VM find_VVI it_PPH1 could_VM no_RR21 longer_RR22 raise_VVI the_AT resources_NN2 to_TO meet_VVI those_DD2 promises_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 therefore_RR had_VHD to_TO change_VVI tack_NN1 ,_, further_RRR adding_VVG to_II confusion_NN1 in_II governmental_JJ policy-making_NN1 ._. 
However_RR ,_, it_PPH1 also_RR had_VHD to_TO act_VVI in_II a_AT1 way_NN1 that_CST would_VM not_XX jeopardize_VVI its_APPGE chance_NN1 of_IO winning_VVG the_AT next_MD election_NN1 ._. 
Hence_RR it_PPH1 was_VBDZ reluctant_JJ to_TO take_VVI the_AT unpopular_JJ measures_NN2 deemed_VVN by_II some_DD to_TO be_VBI necessary_JJ to_TO tackle_VVI Britain_NP1 's_GE long-term_JJ problems_NN2 ._. 
The_AT result_NN1 ,_, in_RR21 short_RR22 ,_, was_VBDZ a_AT1 vicious_JJ circle_NN1 ._. 
The_AT solution_NN1 ,_, or_CC at_RR21 least_RR22 a_AT1 partial_JJ one_PN1 ,_, to_II the_AT problem_NN1 was_VBDZ perceived_VVN by_II these_DD2 critics_NN2 as_II the_AT introduction_NN1 of_IO a_AT1 new_JJ electoral_JJ system_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 that_CST introduced_VVD a_AT1 method_NN1 of_IO proportional_JJ representation_NN1 ._. 
Proportional_JJ representation_NN1 (_( PR_NP1 )_) ,_, it_PPH1 was_VBDZ argued_VVN ,_, would_VM be_VBI fairer_JJR than_CSN the_AT existing_JJ electoral_JJ system_NN1 ,_, ensuring_VVG that_CST a_AT1 party_NN1 received_VVD the_AT share_NN1 of_IO parliamentary_JJ seats_NN2 equivalent_JJ to_II its_APPGE national_JJ vote_NN1 ._. 
Furthermore_RR ,_, giving_VVG existing_JJ voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 would_VM deprive_VVI any_DD one_MC1 party_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 overall_JJ majority_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 ._. 
To_TO form_VVI a_AT1 government_NN1 with_IW an_AT1 overall_JJ parliamentary_JJ majority_NN1 would_VM thus_RR necessitate_VVI a_AT1 coalition._NNU this_DD1 would_VM likely_RR involve_VVI one_MC1 of_IO the_AT main_JJ parties_NN2 having_VHG &quot;_" to_TO co-operate_VVI with_IW a_AT1 party_NN1 or_CC parties_NN2 taking_VVG a_AT1 more_RGR central_JJ stance_NN1 ._. 
&quot;_" hence_RR leading_VVG to_II greater_JJR moderation_NN1 in_II policy_NN1 ._. 
Given_CS21 that_CS22 such_DA a_AT1 coalition_NN1 would_VM enjoy_VVI the_AT support_NN1 of_IO more_DAR than_CSN 50%_NNU of_IO electors_NN2 and_CC that_CST the_AT turnover_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 under_II PR_NP1 is_VBZ small_JJ (_( Professor_NN1 Finer_JJR estimated_VVD that_CST a_AT1 swing_NN1 of_IO 1%_NNU would_VM result_VVI in_II the_AT loss_NN1 of_IO only_RR six_MC seats_NN2 )_) ,_, it_PPH1 would_VM most_RGT likely_RR remain_VVI in_II office_NN1 for_IF the_AT foreseeable_JJ future_NN1 and_CC hence_RR be_VBI in_II a_AT1 position_NN1 to_TO ensure_VVI a_AT1 degree_NN1 of_IO policy_NN1 continuity_NN1 ._. 
The_AT overall_JJ effect_NN1 of_IO PR_NP1 would_VM thus_RR be_VBI to_TO put_VVI an_AT1 end_NN1 to_II the_AT worst_JJT features_NN2 of_IO adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 and_CC its_APPGE unfortunate_JJ consequences_NN2 ._. 
Of_IO the_AT systems_NN2 of_IO proportional_JJ representation_NN1 ,_, the_AT one_PN1 favored_VVD by_II the_AT Liberal_JJ Party_NN1 and_CC the_AT Electoral_JJ Reform_NN1 Society_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT single_JJ transferable_JJ vote_NN1 (_( STV_NN1 )_) system_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ the_AT method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 currently_RR employed_VVN in_II the_AT Republic_NN1 of_IO Ireland_NP1 ,_, in_II Tasmania_NP1 ,_, and_CC in_II Malta_NP1 and_CC for_IF elections_NN2 to_II the_AT Australian_JJ Senate_NN1 ._. 
Under_II STV_NN1 there_EX are_VBR multimember_NN1 constituencies_NN2 ,_, with_IW each_DD1 elector_NN1 able_JK to_TO indicate_VVI a_AT1 preference_NN1 on_II the_AT ballot_NN1 paper_NN1 ,_, putting_VVG the_AT number_NN1 1_MC1 beside_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO the_AT candidate_NN1 most_RRT preferred_VVN ,_, number_NN1 2_MC against_II the_AT name_NN1 of_IO the_AT elector_NN1 's_GE second_MD choice_NN1 ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 ._. 
A_AT1 quota_NN1 is_VBZ established_VVN by_II the_AT formula_NN1 of_IO dividing_VVG the_AT number_NN1 of_IO valid_JJ ballots_NN2 cast_VVN by_II the_AT number_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 ,_, plus_II one_PN1 ;_; to_II the_AT resulting_JJ figure_NN1 ,_, one_PN1 is_VBZ added_VVN ._. 
Thus_RR in_II a_AT1 five-member_JJ constituency_NN1 in_II which_DDQ 120,000_MC ballots_NN2 are_VBR cast_VVN ,_, the_AT formula_NN1 would_VM be_VBI &lsqb;_( formula_NN1 &rsqb;_) Hence_RR the_AT quota_NN1 (_( the_AT number_NN1 of_IO ballots_NN2 required_VVN to_TO elect_VVI one_MC1 member_NN1 )_) would_VM be_VBI 20,001_MC ._. 
Any_DD candidate_NN1 receiving_VVG this_DD1 number_NN1 of_IO votes_NN2 is_VBZ declared_VVN elected_VVN ._. 
The_AT second_MD preferences_NN2 of_IO any_DD of_IO the_AT candidate_NN1 's_GE surplus_JJ votes_NN2 ,_, plus_II those_DD2 of_IO the_AT candidate_NN1 at_II the_AT bottom_NN1 of_IO the_AT poll_NN1 ,_, are_VBR then_RT redistributed_VVN ,_, and_RR31 so_RR32 on_RR33 until_CS the_AT necessary_JJ number_NN1 of_IO candidates_NN2 reach_VV0 the_AT quota_NN1 ._. 
The_AT other_JJ main_JJ system_NN1 that_CST has_VHZ been_VBN advocated_VVN is_VBZ the_AT additional_JJ member_NN1 system_NN1 ,_, similar_JJ to_II that_DD1 employed_VVD in_II West_NP1 Germany_NP1 ._. 
Under_II this_DD1 system_NN1 single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 would_VM be_VBI retained_VVN with_IW the_AT first-past-the-post_JJ method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 retained_VVN in_II each_DD1 in_II other_JJ words_NN2 ,_, the_AT same_DA as_CSA at_RR21 present_RR22 ._. 
However_RR ,_, there_EX would_VM be_VBI additional_JJ seats_NN2 allocated_VVN to_II parties_NN2 on_II a_AT1 regional_JJ basis_NN1 ,_, a_AT1 minimum_NN1 of_IO 5%_NNU of_IO the_AT vote_NN1 in_II any_DD area_NN1 of_IO allocation_NN1 being_VBG necessary_JJ to_TO obtain_VVI any_DD additional_JJ seats_NN2 ._. 
Additional_JJ seats_NN2 would_VM go_VVI proportionately_RR to_II the_AT parties_NN2 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO votes_NN2 received_VVN in_II the_AT region_NN1 ._. 
Under_II a_AT1 scheme_NN1 proposed_VVN by_II the_AT Hansard_NP1 Society_NN1 for_IF Parliamentary_JJ Government_NN1 ,_, there_EX would_VM be_VBI 480_MC single-member_JJ constituencies_NN2 and_CC 160_MC seats_NN2 allocated_VVN on_II a_AT1 regional_JJ basis_NN1 ._. 
Proponents_NN2 of_IO this_DD1 system_NN1 and_CC of_IO STV_NN1 argue_VV0 that_CST the_AT effect_NN1 would_VM be_VBI a_AT1 representative_JJ House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP ,_, the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO seats_NN2 going_VVG to_II parties_NN2 being_VBG the_AT same_DA as_CSA the_AT proportion_NN1 of_IO the_AT votes_NN2 won_VVN in_II the_AT election_NN1 ._. 
Support_VV0 for_IF a_AT1 new_JJ electoral_JJ system_NN1 has_VHZ developed_VVN since_CS the_AT mid-1970s_NN2 ,_, encompassing_VVG academics_NN2 and_CC politicians_NN2 ._. 
The_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ par_NN1 ties_NN2 have_VH0 witnessed_VVN the_AT creation_NN1 of_IO bodies_NN2 within_II their_APPGE own_DA ranks_NN2 favoring_VVG such_DA reform_NN1 ._. 
The_AT Liberal_JJ party_NN1 has_VHZ an_AT1 important_JJ ally_NN1 in_II its_APPGE partner_NN1 ,_, the_AT Social_JJ Democratic_JJ party_NN1 :_: both_DB2 are_VBR strongly_RR committed_VVN to_II electoral_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
Various_JJ attempts_NN2 were_VBDR made_VVN in_II the_AT 1974-1979_MCMC Parliament_NN1 to_TO introduce_VVI PR_NP1 throughout_II the_AT United_NP1 Kingdom_NP1 for_IF elections_NN2 to_II the_AT European_JJ Parliament_NN1 and_CC for_IF elections_NN2 to_II the_AT proposed_JJ assemblies_NN2 in_II Scotland_NP1 and_CC Wales_NP1 ._. 
The_AT attempts_NN2 failed_VVD ,_, but_CCB they_PPHS2 helped_VVD keep_VVI the_AT issue_NN1 of_IO electoral_JJ reform_NN1 on_II the_AT agenda_NN1 of_IO political_JJ debate_NN1 ._. 
The_AT outcome_NN1 of_IO the_AT 1983_MC election_NN1 added_VVD a_AT1 further_JJR spur_NN1 to_II the_AT reform_NN1 movement_NN1 ._. 
Despite_II this_DD1 pressure_NN1 for_IF reform_NN1 ,_, the_AT existing_JJ system_NN1 retains_VVZ its_APPGE supporters_NN2 ._. 
A_AT1 majority_NN1 of_IO both_DB2 the_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ parliamentary_JJ parties_NN2 prefer_VV0 the_AT first-past-the-post_JJ method_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 ._. 
One_MC1 keen_JJ defender_NN1 is_VBZ the_AT present_JJ prime_JJ minister_NN1 ,_, Mrs._NNB Thatcher_NP1 ._. 
The_AT arguments_NN2 deployed_VVN against_II the_AT reformers_NN2 '_GE case_NN1 are_VBR varied_VVN ._. 
The_AT essential_JJ line_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 is_VBZ that_CST a_AT1 reformed_JJ electoral_JJ system_NN1 could_VM constitute_VVI a_AT1 greater_JJR threat_NN1 to_II the_AT maintenance_NN1 of_IO political_JJ authority_NN1 than_CSN any_DD defects_NN2 of_IO the_AT existing_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
The_AT STV_NN1 system_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN ,_, could_VM threaten_VVI the_AT essential_JJ link_NN1 between_II an_AT1 elector_NN1 and_CC his_APPGE MP_NN1 given_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 would_VM necessitate_VVI in_II rural_JJ areas_NN2 constituencies_NN2 of_IO massive_JJ size_NN1 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT reformers_NN2 '_GE argument_NN1 that_CST PR_NP1 would_VM enhance_VVI the_AT likelihood_NN1 of_IO coalition_NN1 government_NN1 ,_, consent_NN1 could_VM be_VBI undermined_VVN if_CS government_NN1 was_VBDZ to_TO result_VVI from_II post-election_JJ bargaining_NN1 between_II parties_NN2 ;_; by_II a_AT1 small_JJ center_NN1 party_NN1 holding_VVG the_AT balance_NN1 of_IO power_NN1 and_CC hence_RR wielding_VVG undue_JJ influence_NN1 over_II government_NN1 policy_NN1 ;_; and_CC by_II the_AT alienation_NN1 of_IO voters_NN2 who_PNQS support_VV0 a_AT1 party_NN1 excluded_VVN on_II a_AT1 long-term_JJ basis_NN1 from_II becoming_VVG a_AT1 partner_NN1 in_II coalition_NN1 ._. 
Such_DA rebuttals_NN2 are_VBR based_VVN on_II accepting_VVG the_AT assumptions_NN2 made_VVN by_II PR_NP1 advocates_NN2 about_II the_AT likely_JJ consequences_NN2 of_IO electoral_JJ reform_NN1 ._. 
Some_DD observers_NN2 have_VH0 drawn_VVN attention_NN1 to_II the_AT fact_NN1 that_CST such_DA assumptions_NN2 themselves_PPX2 rest_VV0 on_II flimsy_JJ foundations_NN2 ._. 
The_AT reformers_NN2 argue_VV0 their_APPGE case_NN1 on_II the_AT assumption_NN1 that_CST voting_NN1 behaviour_NN1 experienced_VVN under_II the_AT current_JJ mode_NN1 of_IO election_NN1 would_VM most_RGT likely_RR continue_VVI under_II a_AT1 new_JJ mode_NN1 :_: this_DD1 is_VBZ ,_, as_CSA Geoffrey_NP1 Alderman_NN1 has_VHZ pointed_VVN out_RP ,_, a_AT1 most_RGT unlikely_JJ hypothesis_NN1 ._. 
Arguments_NN2 that_CST PR_NP1 works_VVZ well_RR in_II countries_NN2 such_II21 as_II22 West_ND1 Germany_NP1 are_VBR countered_VVN by_II pointing_VVG to_II the_AT experience_NN1 of_IO italy_RR ,_, where_CS turnover_NN1 in_II governments_NN2 is_VBZ rapid_JJ and_CC a_AT1 significant_JJ fraction_NN1 of_IO the_AT population_NN1 vote_NN1 for_IF a_AT1 party_NN1 that_CST is_VBZ consistently_RR excluded_VVN from_II government_NN1 ._. 
Given_VVN the_AT different_JJ political_JJ cultures_NN2 that_CST exist_VV0 ,_, seeking_VVG to_TO anticipate_VVI what_DDQ would_VM happen_VVI in_II Britain_NP1 on_II the_AT basis_NN1 of_IO experience_NN1 abroad_RL is_VBZ an_AT1 undertaking_NN1 of_IO limited_JJ usefulness_NN1 ._. 
The_AT adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 thesis_NN1 developed_VVN by_II the_AT reformers_NN2 has_VHZ also_RR been_VBN variously_RR challenged_VVN ._. 
There_EX are_VBR two_MC mutually_RR exclusive_JJ arguments_NN2 deployed_VVN against_II it_PPH1 ._. 
One_MC1 line_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 accepts_VVZ the_AT notion_NN1 of_IO an_AT1 adversary_NN1 relationship_NN1 between_II the_AT parties_NN2 but_CCB considers_VVZ this_DD1 a_AT1 beneficial_JJ rather_II21 than_II22 a_AT1 harmful_JJ process_NN1 ._. 
If_CS offers_NN2 a_AT1 clear_JJ choice_NN1 to_II the_AT electorate_NN1 and_CC it_PPH1 results_VVZ in_II one_MC1 party_NN1 with_IW a_AT1 mandate_NN1 from_II the_AT people_NN getting_VVG on_RP with_IW the_AT job_NN1 of_IO governing_VVG ._. 
If_CS the_AT electorate_NN1 disapproves_VVZ of_IO the_AT policies_NN2 or_CC their_APPGE outcomes_NN2 ,_, it_PPH1 has_VHZ the_AT opportunity_NN1 to_TO replace_VVI the_AT government_NN1 at_II the_AT next_MD election_NN1 ._. 
There_EX may_VM be_VBI some_DD discontinuity_NN1 in_II policy_NN1 occasioned_VVN by_II governments_NN2 of_IO different_JJ political_JJ persuasions_NN2 pursuing_VVG different_JJ paths_NN2 ,_, but_CCB that_DD1 is_VBZ the_AT price_NN1 an_AT1 acceptable_JJ price_NN1 one_PN1 has_VHZ to_TO pay_VVI for_IF the_AT advantages_NN2 offered_VVN by_II the_AT existing_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
Proportional_JJ representation_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ feared_VVN ,_, would_VM facilitate_VVI a_AT1 blurring_NN1 of_IO the_AT choice_NN1 before_II the_AT electorate_NN1 and_CC prevent_VV0 a_AT1 party_NN1 being_VBG returned_VVN with_IW a_AT1 mandate_NN1 clearly_RR approved_VVN by_II the_AT people_NN ._. 
Such_DA a_AT1 line_NN1 of_IO argument_NN1 is_VBZ pursued_VVN especially_RR by_II the_AT two_MC largest_JJT parties_NN2 ._. 
It_PPH1 is_VBZ in_II their_APPGE own_DA interest_NN1 to_TO do_VDI so_RR :_: each_DD1 wants_VVZ to_TO pursue_VVI its_APPGE own_DA policies_NN2 ,_, which_DDQ it_PPH1 believed_VVD to_TO be_VBI in_II the_AT best_JJT interests_NN2 of_IO the_AT country_NN1 ,_, without_IW having_VHG those_DD2 policies_NN2 tempered_VVN or_CC abandoned_VVN because_II21 of_II22 the_AT need_NN1 to_TO enter_VVI into_II alliance_NN1 with_IW another_DD1 party_NN1 ._. 
For_IF a_AT1 brief_JJ period_NN1 of_IO one_MC1 year_NNT1 ,_, 1977-1978_MCMC ,_, the_AT Labour_JJ government_NN1 of_IO James_NP1 Callaghan_NP1 entered_VVD into_II a_AT1 Pact_NN1 with_IW the_AT Liberal_JJ parliamentary_JJ party_NN1 :_: in_II31 return_II32 for_II33 voting_NN1 support_NN1 in_II the_AT House_NN1 of_IO Commons_NP (_( necessary_JJ to_TO maintain_VVI its_APPGE majority_NN1 )_) ,_, the_AT government_NN1 modified_VVD certain_JJ policies_NN2 of_IO its_APPGE own_DA and_CC introduced_VVD certain_JJ measures_NN2 favored_VVD by_II the_AT Liberals_NN2 ._. 
The_AT experience_NN1 was_VBDZ not_XX one_PN1 much_RR enjoyed_VVN by_II the_AT Labour_JJ party_NN1 ,_, certain_JJ sections_NN2 of_IO which_DDQ were_VBDR extremely_RR hostile_JJ to_II the_AT arrangement_NN1 ._. 
Both_DB2 the_AT Conservative_NN1 and_CC Labour_JJ parties_NN2 appeared_VVD to_TO draw_VVI the_AT conclusion_NN1 that_CST it_PPH1 was_VBDZ an_AT1 experience_NN1 to_TO be_VBI avoided_VVN ,_, not_XX one_PN1 to_TO be_VBI encouraged_VVN ._. 
The_AT other_JJ argument_NN1 deployed_VVN against_II the_AT adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 thesis_NN1 calls_VVZ into_II doubt_NN1 the_AT relevance_NN1 of_IO the_AT notion_NN1 itself_PPX1 ._. 
The_AT rhetoric_NN1 of_IO adversary_NN1 politics_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 is_VBZ argued_VVN ,_, hides_VVZ a_AT1 more_RGR consensual_JJ substance_NN1 ._. 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 government_NN1 legislation_NN1 ,_, empirical_JJ research_NN1 has_VHZ indicated_VVN that_CST a_AT1 consensual_JJ model_NN1 is_VBZ indeed_RR more_RGR applicable_JJ ._. 
In_II this_DD1 view_NN1 ,_, parties_NN2 are_VBR seen_VVN as_CSA being_VBG not_XX quite_RG as_RG central_JJ to_II formulation_NN1 of_IO public_JJ money_NN1 as_II both_DB2 reformers_NN2 and_CC the_AT politicians_NN2 themselves_PPX2 believe_VV0 ._. 
The_AT external_JJ demands_NN2 on_II government_NN1 are_VBR such_CS21 that_CS22 it_PPH1 can_VM often_RR act_VVI only_RR as_CSA arbiter_NN1 between_II competing_JJ demands_NN2 and_CC respond_VV0 ,_, under_II guidance_NN1 from_II civil_JJ servants_NN2 ,_, to_II international_JJ events_NN2 and_CC trends_NN2 over_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 has_VHZ no_AT direct_JJ influence_NN1 ._. 
Whichever_DDQV party_NN1 is_VBZ in_II power_NN1 makes_VVZ some_DD but_CCB not_XX a_AT1 great_JJ deal_NN1 of_IO difference_NN1 ._. 
Elections_NN2 may_VM help_VVI produce_VVI the_AT personnel_NN2 at_II the_AT apex_NN1 of_IO government_NN1 but_CCB they_PPHS2 tell_VV0 us_PPIO2 little_RR about_II likely_JJ public_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 ,_, in_II summary_NN1 ,_, has_VHZ again_RT become_VV0 a_AT1 subject_NN1 of_IO politi-cal_JJ debate_NN1 ._. 
In_II31 terms_II32 of_II33 the_AT political_JJ system_NN1 ,_, it_PPH1 can_VM be_VBI said_VVN to_TO provide_VVI the_AT means_NN by_II which_DDQ a_AT1 government_NN1 is_VBZ chosen_VVN but_CCB ,_, despite_II the_AT results_NN2 of_IO the_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 ,_, the_AT extent_NN1 to_II which_DDQ it_PPH1 will_VM continue_VVI to_TO be_VBI capable_JJ of_IO providing_VVG a_AT1 government_NN1 (_( at_RR21 least_RR22 in_II the_AT way_NN1 it_PPH1 has_VHZ previously_RR done_VDN )_) remains_VVZ under_II question_NN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 operates_VVZ on_II the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" one_MC1 person_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 vote_NN1 ,_, &quot;_" but_CCB there_EX is_VBZ now_RT some_DD dispute_NN1 as_II21 to_II22 its_APPGE legitimacy_NN1 and_CC that_DD1 of_IO the_AT government_NN1 it_PPH1 produces_VVZ on_II the_AT grounds_NN2 that_CST the_AT principle_NN1 of_IO &quot;_" one_MC1 person_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 vote_NN1 ,_, one_MC1 value_NN1 &quot;_" has_VHZ not_XX been_VBN fully_RR realized_VVN ._. 
And_CC there_EX is_VBZ debate_NN1 and_CC notable_JJ disagreement_NN1 about_II the_AT consequences_NN2 that_CST elections_NN2 not_XX only_RR do_VD0 have_VHI but_CCB should_VM have_VHI for_IF public_JJ policy_NN1 ._. 
The_AT debate_NN1 is_VBZ very_RG much_RR a_AT1 current_JJ one_PN1 ._. 
It_PPH1 revolves_VVZ around_RP arguments_NN2 for_IF and_CC against_II a_AT1 reform_NN1 of_IO the_AT electoral_JJ system_NN1 ._. 
Whether_CSW Britain_NP1 will_VM witness_VVI electoral_JJ reform_NN1 in_II the_AT next_MD decade_NNT1 or_CC so_RR rests_VVZ on_II the_AT outcome_NN1 of_IO that_DD1 debate_NN1 ._. 
The_AT 1983_MC general_JJ election_NN1 result_NN1 fueled_VVD rather_CS21 than_CS22 ended_VVN the_AT controversy_NN1 ._. 
